1 00:00:04,500 --> 00:00:06,916 Do you know that there was a time when making hats 2 00:00:06,917 --> 00:00:10,332 for a living could literally drive you crazy? 3 00:00:10,333 --> 00:00:12,166 There is dizziness and slurred speech 4 00:00:12,167 --> 00:00:14,082 and mental confusion. 5 00:00:14,083 --> 00:00:15,999 It's one thing to be called mad as a hatter, 6 00:00:16,000 --> 00:00:17,416 as a turn of phrase. 7 00:00:17,417 --> 00:00:19,332 It's another thing to actually be a hatter 8 00:00:19,333 --> 00:00:21,500 who's gone insane because of your job. 9 00:00:23,167 --> 00:00:25,999 Would you be surprised to know that there was one job 10 00:00:26,000 --> 00:00:28,500 that literally sucked the life right out of you? 11 00:00:29,792 --> 00:00:33,249 These women are deep in dirty water with gaping wounds 12 00:00:33,250 --> 00:00:36,041 from the leches all over their bodies. 13 00:00:36,042 --> 00:00:38,291 Or that a career as a film projectionist 14 00:00:38,292 --> 00:00:40,207 was more like a disaster movie. 15 00:00:40,208 --> 00:00:42,207 It was just a stressful job. 16 00:00:42,208 --> 00:00:43,499 Am I gonna catch on fire? 17 00:00:43,500 --> 00:00:45,999 Am I gonna burn this whole movie house down? 18 00:00:46,000 --> 00:00:48,666 Once a fire breaks out, his only hope 19 00:00:48,667 --> 00:00:50,207 is to make his way to the door, 20 00:00:50,208 --> 00:00:52,374 which hopefully isn't engulfed in flames. 21 00:00:52,375 --> 00:00:55,041 These are the things we used to do 22 00:00:55,042 --> 00:00:59,291 for fun, for money, or maybe out of boredom 23 00:00:59,292 --> 00:01:01,916 that we'll never see again. 24 00:01:01,917 --> 00:01:03,416 Were they dangerous? 25 00:01:03,417 --> 00:01:04,707 Certainly. 26 00:01:04,708 --> 00:01:05,666 Deadly? 27 00:01:05,667 --> 00:01:06,791 Occasionally. 28 00:01:06,792 --> 00:01:09,208 But boy, wasn't it exciting? 29 00:01:19,750 --> 00:01:22,374 You know how construction sites have those signs 30 00:01:22,375 --> 00:01:26,207 that say it's been this many days without an accident? 31 00:01:26,208 --> 00:01:28,624 Well, back in the day, they didn't need those signs 32 00:01:28,625 --> 00:01:31,541 because the answer was usually zero. 33 00:01:32,625 --> 00:01:36,707 Although Chicago invents the skyscraper, 34 00:01:36,708 --> 00:01:40,458 one place on earth perfects it, and that is New York City. 35 00:01:41,750 --> 00:01:46,583 From the early 1900s until the mid 1930s or '40s, 36 00:01:47,958 --> 00:01:50,374 New York underwent a growth to the sky 37 00:01:50,375 --> 00:01:53,667 unlike any other city of the time. 38 00:01:55,333 --> 00:01:57,374 Before modern advancements in construction, 39 00:01:57,375 --> 00:02:00,416 some of the most famous buildings in America 40 00:02:00,417 --> 00:02:03,374 are built very differently by workers 41 00:02:03,375 --> 00:02:05,916 who risk their lives to get the job done. 42 00:02:05,917 --> 00:02:09,207 Let's talk about the type of man it takes to be like, 43 00:02:09,208 --> 00:02:11,291 I am gonna go up there with no harness 44 00:02:11,292 --> 00:02:12,374 and I'm gonna build those buildings, 45 00:02:12,375 --> 00:02:14,207 and the evidence of this bravery 46 00:02:14,208 --> 00:02:15,666 is all around us in New York City. 47 00:02:15,667 --> 00:02:17,249 I mean, you look at any of these buildings 48 00:02:17,250 --> 00:02:19,041 that were built in the '20s and '30s 49 00:02:19,042 --> 00:02:21,083 and they were only built one way. 50 00:02:22,542 --> 00:02:26,166 Each steel girder is lifted upon one another 51 00:02:26,167 --> 00:02:29,582 and they have to be manually positioned by workmen 52 00:02:29,583 --> 00:02:33,874 who are straddling or walking along 53 00:02:33,875 --> 00:02:36,375 these exposed steel beams. 54 00:02:38,042 --> 00:02:41,457 Imagine stepping out on a narrow steel beam, 55 00:02:41,458 --> 00:02:44,416 suspended hundreds of feet up in the air over New York City, 56 00:02:44,417 --> 00:02:47,457 no safety equipment, just your balance. 57 00:02:47,458 --> 00:02:50,624 That was the daily life for these workers. 58 00:02:50,625 --> 00:02:53,499 Those men who are 840 feet in the air. 59 00:02:53,500 --> 00:02:57,082 If you were to fall chance of survival, 0% 60 00:02:57,083 --> 00:02:58,624 Spectators around New York 61 00:02:58,625 --> 00:03:02,457 refer to these workers as the sky boys and call them 62 00:03:02,458 --> 00:03:05,624 the best open air show in town. 63 00:03:05,625 --> 00:03:07,791 It makes me dizzy to look at 'em, 64 00:03:07,792 --> 00:03:09,457 and yet they're as nonchalant 65 00:03:09,458 --> 00:03:11,832 as though they were on the avenue. 66 00:03:11,833 --> 00:03:14,832 You know, the famous photo, lunch atop of skyscraper. 67 00:03:14,833 --> 00:03:18,207 It was a staged promotion for the Empire State Building, 68 00:03:18,208 --> 00:03:21,499 but these people actually did hang out on beams 69 00:03:21,500 --> 00:03:23,624 hundreds of feet up in the air. 70 00:03:23,625 --> 00:03:25,624 And look at that photo of those guys up there 71 00:03:25,625 --> 00:03:28,332 on the I-beam sitting there eating lunch 72 00:03:28,333 --> 00:03:30,207 200 feet above the air in New York City. 73 00:03:30,208 --> 00:03:33,166 They look so happy to be up there. 74 00:03:33,167 --> 00:03:34,707 I mean that's what always shocked me, 75 00:03:34,708 --> 00:03:36,582 like they're always having a good time. 76 00:03:36,583 --> 00:03:39,207 As one newspaper put it, they spend their days 77 00:03:39,208 --> 00:03:41,749 strolling on the thin edge of nothingness. 78 00:03:41,750 --> 00:03:44,624 These jobs are so dangerous that two out of five workers 79 00:03:44,625 --> 00:03:47,207 fall to their deaths or end up disabled. 80 00:03:47,208 --> 00:03:49,499 And their workday involves a lot more 81 00:03:49,500 --> 00:03:51,666 than just balancing along beams. 82 00:03:51,667 --> 00:03:55,374 They have jobs to do and none more dangerous 83 00:03:55,375 --> 00:03:57,542 than the work done by the rivet gang. 84 00:03:58,875 --> 00:04:00,999 A rivet gang is a team of four men whose job it is 85 00:04:01,000 --> 00:04:04,750 to fasten steel beams together with red hot rivets. 86 00:04:06,292 --> 00:04:08,999 Imagine a giant erector set, 87 00:04:09,000 --> 00:04:13,541 but rather than taking little screws, it's fiery hot rivets 88 00:04:13,542 --> 00:04:16,332 and the rivets have to be heated on site. 89 00:04:16,333 --> 00:04:19,874 All this had to be done with precision and in seconds. 90 00:04:19,875 --> 00:04:21,291 First, you have the heater, 91 00:04:21,292 --> 00:04:23,749 a guy who fires up the rivets until they're red hot 92 00:04:23,750 --> 00:04:25,541 in this portable forge. 93 00:04:25,542 --> 00:04:27,582 The heater then hurls these rivets 94 00:04:27,583 --> 00:04:30,375 up in the air, 20 or 30 feet up to the catcher, 95 00:04:31,750 --> 00:04:35,499 who then uses a tin bucket to catch this red hot rivet. 96 00:04:35,500 --> 00:04:38,041 The catcher then passes it to the bucker up 97 00:04:38,042 --> 00:04:40,666 who sets the rivet for the riveter 98 00:04:40,667 --> 00:04:45,291 who finally drives the flaming hot rivet home. 99 00:04:45,292 --> 00:04:47,874 There's nothing quite like working with a furnace 100 00:04:47,875 --> 00:04:50,166 while you are a hundred stories off the ground. 101 00:04:50,167 --> 00:04:52,707 There're being battened by wind, 102 00:04:52,708 --> 00:04:57,750 fighting off rain, handling fiery hot rivets. 103 00:04:58,792 --> 00:05:00,666 These are really talented individuals. 104 00:05:00,667 --> 00:05:03,332 Obviously a lot can go wrong during this work. 105 00:05:03,333 --> 00:05:05,374 Miss a catch, and a red hot rivet 106 00:05:05,375 --> 00:05:07,917 can land on an unsuspecting worker below 107 00:05:09,208 --> 00:05:10,832 who would not have been wearing a hard hat 108 00:05:10,833 --> 00:05:13,624 because those aren't required for another decade. 109 00:05:13,625 --> 00:05:15,874 And riveting is no small task. 110 00:05:15,875 --> 00:05:20,499 A 1,000 foot skyscraper would need 10 million rivets 111 00:05:20,500 --> 00:05:24,457 to hold together 50,000 tons of steel. 112 00:05:24,458 --> 00:05:28,499 Means 10 million times was it heated, 113 00:05:28,500 --> 00:05:33,500 thrown, caught, held, and riveted by hand. 114 00:05:34,708 --> 00:05:37,207 Not only is there no room for error, 115 00:05:37,208 --> 00:05:38,917 there's no time for it either. 116 00:05:40,250 --> 00:05:41,957 Putting up the tallest building in the world 117 00:05:41,958 --> 00:05:45,207 literally becomes a race between the Empire State Building 118 00:05:45,208 --> 00:05:46,416 and the Chrysler Building. 119 00:05:46,417 --> 00:05:48,207 The Chrysler Building finishes first, 120 00:05:48,208 --> 00:05:50,832 but the Empire State Building takes the crown 121 00:05:50,833 --> 00:05:55,833 rising to 1,453 feet after only 410 days of construction. 122 00:05:57,917 --> 00:05:59,999 It's world's tallest structure. 123 00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:03,082 Lofted nearly quarter mile into Manhattan skies. 124 00:06:03,083 --> 00:06:04,374 410 days. 125 00:06:04,375 --> 00:06:06,666 That's one year and 45 days. 126 00:06:06,667 --> 00:06:09,707 That's three years faster than the Golden Gate Bridge. 127 00:06:09,708 --> 00:06:12,374 Four years faster than the Hoover Dam. 128 00:06:12,375 --> 00:06:15,291 Eight years faster than the Statue of Liberty. 129 00:06:15,292 --> 00:06:18,207 Today, building an average single family home 130 00:06:18,208 --> 00:06:19,999 takes about seven months. 131 00:06:20,000 --> 00:06:21,957 On the Empire State Building project, 132 00:06:21,958 --> 00:06:25,582 of the 3,400 workers, it was officially reported 133 00:06:25,583 --> 00:06:28,707 that five lost their lives, but some report the number 134 00:06:28,708 --> 00:06:31,332 at much higher, even in the hundreds. 135 00:06:31,333 --> 00:06:35,707 The dangerous anything goes skyscraper construction era 136 00:06:35,708 --> 00:06:39,832 of the 1930s eventually diminishes in the 1950s 137 00:06:39,833 --> 00:06:44,582 as first welding starts to replace riveting. 138 00:06:44,583 --> 00:06:47,707 And secondly, stronger labor unions 139 00:06:47,708 --> 00:06:50,332 call for safer working conditions. 140 00:06:50,333 --> 00:06:52,707 No more sky boys, no more lunch on the beam, 141 00:06:52,708 --> 00:06:54,832 no more putting up skyscrapers in the time 142 00:06:54,833 --> 00:06:56,832 it takes to play a baseball season. 143 00:06:56,833 --> 00:06:58,582 I always admire guys like that, 144 00:06:58,583 --> 00:07:00,291 taking lives in their own hand 145 00:07:00,292 --> 00:07:01,666 and doing really dangerous work. 146 00:07:01,667 --> 00:07:05,041 That's what America used to be, a country of people 147 00:07:05,042 --> 00:07:07,874 being like, yeah, I got this, and I don't think 148 00:07:07,875 --> 00:07:10,291 those guys should ever be forgotten. 149 00:07:10,292 --> 00:07:12,374 That's real American spirit. 150 00:07:12,375 --> 00:07:15,041 Of course, not all jobs came with risks 151 00:07:15,042 --> 00:07:18,999 as obvious as working hundreds of feet above ground. 152 00:07:20,333 --> 00:07:23,124 When America enters World War I in 1917, 153 00:07:23,125 --> 00:07:24,832 after declaring war in Germany, 154 00:07:24,833 --> 00:07:26,916 everyday Americans spring into action 155 00:07:26,917 --> 00:07:29,625 to help support the effort in any way they can. 156 00:07:31,042 --> 00:07:34,707 With men fighting overseas, many women flock to factories. 157 00:07:34,708 --> 00:07:36,667 For them it's their patriotic duty. 158 00:07:38,000 --> 00:07:40,207 One of the most coveted jobs for women 159 00:07:40,208 --> 00:07:41,749 is called dial painting, 160 00:07:41,750 --> 00:07:44,666 which involves using glow in the dark paint 161 00:07:44,667 --> 00:07:48,042 to make equipment dials and clocks visible at night. 162 00:07:49,833 --> 00:07:52,499 Dial painting is actually very lucrative. 163 00:07:52,500 --> 00:07:55,041 This job pays almost three times what a typical 164 00:07:55,042 --> 00:07:57,707 you know, hourly job was paying at the time. 165 00:07:57,708 --> 00:08:02,041 One of the many draws of this job besides the money, 166 00:08:02,042 --> 00:08:05,124 is that after a long day of painting, 167 00:08:05,125 --> 00:08:07,832 you would sort of glow. 168 00:08:07,833 --> 00:08:09,499 The women who work in these factories 169 00:08:09,500 --> 00:08:11,166 get this nickname as Ghost Girls. 170 00:08:11,167 --> 00:08:13,582 I mean, it's pretty cool, right? 171 00:08:13,583 --> 00:08:16,624 This is before glow in the dark products exist 172 00:08:16,625 --> 00:08:18,707 like kids stickers and toys. 173 00:08:18,708 --> 00:08:20,457 So you can understand why people 174 00:08:20,458 --> 00:08:23,541 are so excited about products that glow. 175 00:08:23,542 --> 00:08:26,082 They wear their finest dresses to work, 176 00:08:26,083 --> 00:08:28,374 so that it'll pick up in the paint and glow 177 00:08:28,375 --> 00:08:30,624 when they go to the dance halls that night. 178 00:08:30,625 --> 00:08:35,624 They even paint on their teeth for a truly radiant smile. 179 00:08:35,625 --> 00:08:39,374 Turns out what makes the paint glow in the dark 180 00:08:39,375 --> 00:08:43,832 is radium, which is also highly radioactive. 181 00:08:43,833 --> 00:08:45,624 So a lot of the dials that are being painted 182 00:08:45,625 --> 00:08:47,416 are very fine little lines. 183 00:08:47,417 --> 00:08:49,624 So the women are taught a technique 184 00:08:49,625 --> 00:08:51,832 to really get the paintbrush very pointed 185 00:08:51,833 --> 00:08:53,291 and it's called lip pointing, 186 00:08:53,292 --> 00:08:55,291 where they actually put the paintbrush in their mouth 187 00:08:55,292 --> 00:08:56,957 and get this nice little point. 188 00:08:56,958 --> 00:09:00,874 Just to be clear, they were told to literally stick radium 189 00:09:00,875 --> 00:09:04,624 in their mouths every day all day long. 190 00:09:04,625 --> 00:09:06,416 Some of them asked their supervisors, 191 00:09:06,417 --> 00:09:07,666 is this actually safe? 192 00:09:07,667 --> 00:09:10,125 Their supervisor said, of course it is. 193 00:09:11,667 --> 00:09:13,416 I've worked with radium 194 00:09:13,417 --> 00:09:15,624 and many other radioactive elements. 195 00:09:15,625 --> 00:09:17,707 Radium ain't safe. 196 00:09:17,708 --> 00:09:19,582 So what happens when you keep 197 00:09:19,583 --> 00:09:21,957 putting radium in your mouth? 198 00:09:21,958 --> 00:09:24,832 These young women would get something called necrosis 199 00:09:24,833 --> 00:09:28,041 of the jaw where your face would literally 200 00:09:28,042 --> 00:09:29,374 start to rot away. 201 00:09:29,375 --> 00:09:31,791 It's estimated that they're consuming something 202 00:09:31,792 --> 00:09:35,582 like 3,000 micro curies of radium a year. 203 00:09:35,583 --> 00:09:38,874 That's 10 times today's safe limit 204 00:09:38,875 --> 00:09:41,707 of 300 micro curies a year. 205 00:09:41,708 --> 00:09:44,332 The women volunteer for medical exams 206 00:09:44,333 --> 00:09:45,791 to help scientists understand 207 00:09:45,792 --> 00:09:48,041 the effects of nuclear fallout. 208 00:09:48,042 --> 00:09:51,166 One scientist examines five dial painters 209 00:09:51,167 --> 00:09:54,332 and finds that they've ingested so much radium 210 00:09:54,333 --> 00:09:56,750 that their breath is even toxic. 211 00:09:57,833 --> 00:09:59,291 Eventually, new safety measures 212 00:09:59,292 --> 00:10:00,707 are put in place. 213 00:10:00,708 --> 00:10:03,707 Radium painting continues into the 1960s, 214 00:10:03,708 --> 00:10:06,874 but with more precautions, specifically radium painters 215 00:10:06,875 --> 00:10:09,583 are instructed not to put the brush in their mouth. 216 00:10:11,458 --> 00:10:13,332 Almost everything that we know about 217 00:10:13,333 --> 00:10:15,791 radiation inside the body today 218 00:10:15,792 --> 00:10:18,333 is because of the radium girls. 219 00:10:22,125 --> 00:10:23,957 We've all heard the warning about 220 00:10:23,958 --> 00:10:26,041 not yelling fire in a crowded theater, 221 00:10:26,042 --> 00:10:28,666 but it turns out in the early days of cinema, 222 00:10:28,667 --> 00:10:30,042 sometimes you had to. 223 00:10:32,125 --> 00:10:34,832 In the 1880s, Eastman Kodak produced 224 00:10:34,833 --> 00:10:39,166 the first commercially available motion picture film. 225 00:10:39,167 --> 00:10:41,874 Then Thomas Edison creates the kinetograph, 226 00:10:41,875 --> 00:10:44,541 which is the first motion picture camera, 227 00:10:44,542 --> 00:10:47,041 then the era of movies begins. 228 00:10:47,042 --> 00:10:49,582 These early films are shot on a substance 229 00:10:49,583 --> 00:10:53,541 called nitrate film, and nitrate film is durable, 230 00:10:53,542 --> 00:10:54,957 which is what makes it perfect 231 00:10:54,958 --> 00:10:57,582 for a motion picture projector. 232 00:10:57,583 --> 00:10:59,791 But there's a pretty big downside 233 00:10:59,792 --> 00:11:03,707 as they soon discover nitrate film can't take the heat. 234 00:11:03,708 --> 00:11:06,707 Nitrate is hugely temperature sensitive 235 00:11:06,708 --> 00:11:09,416 and sometimes it can just combust, 236 00:11:09,417 --> 00:11:12,167 so that is a recipe for disaster. 237 00:11:13,250 --> 00:11:16,207 Keep in mind how these film projectors work. 238 00:11:16,208 --> 00:11:20,041 A big incandescent light bulb is used to cast the image 239 00:11:20,042 --> 00:11:24,832 of the film onto a screen, and a big bright light bulb 240 00:11:24,833 --> 00:11:27,207 means an incredibly hot light bulb. 241 00:11:27,208 --> 00:11:29,416 Nitrate film is comparatively strong, 242 00:11:29,417 --> 00:11:32,916 but it has the disadvantage of being highly flammable. 243 00:11:32,917 --> 00:11:34,708 It is almost an explosive. 244 00:11:35,875 --> 00:11:37,832 These films can combust on their own 245 00:11:37,833 --> 00:11:40,291 just by sitting in a hot car in the sun. 246 00:11:40,292 --> 00:11:43,749 And because the chemical can generate its own oxygen, 247 00:11:43,750 --> 00:11:46,374 it's practically impossible to put out. 248 00:11:46,375 --> 00:11:47,957 That's right. 249 00:11:47,958 --> 00:11:51,041 The film used to shoot movies and project them in theaters 250 00:11:51,042 --> 00:11:55,707 is so flammable it can spontaneously combust. 251 00:11:55,708 --> 00:11:57,499 Just a year after the first public viewing 252 00:11:57,500 --> 00:12:01,041 of a motion picture, there's a fire at a theater in London. 253 00:12:01,042 --> 00:12:03,624 Shortly after that, there's an even bigger fire 254 00:12:03,625 --> 00:12:06,207 and it kills 126 people. 255 00:12:06,208 --> 00:12:08,916 So the irony of all of this happening is the idea 256 00:12:08,917 --> 00:12:11,041 behind movies was to capture this art 257 00:12:11,042 --> 00:12:13,249 and give people this way to escape, 258 00:12:13,250 --> 00:12:15,707 except it's really just putting them all together 259 00:12:15,708 --> 00:12:18,374 and then kind of half setting them on fire. 260 00:12:18,375 --> 00:12:22,041 After several nitrate fires in the late 1880s 261 00:12:22,042 --> 00:12:26,624 and the early 1900s, movie theaters make a change. 262 00:12:26,625 --> 00:12:28,707 In the early days of movie houses, 263 00:12:28,708 --> 00:12:30,832 the projector would be right there in the middle 264 00:12:30,833 --> 00:12:32,541 of the theater with the patrons. 265 00:12:32,542 --> 00:12:34,957 It was easy, it was cheap. 266 00:12:34,958 --> 00:12:37,541 Eventually, there were so many fires that this innovation 267 00:12:37,542 --> 00:12:39,374 called the projector room was created. 268 00:12:39,375 --> 00:12:42,332 They decided we'll just move the projectionist 269 00:12:42,333 --> 00:12:44,374 up top above everybody. 270 00:12:44,375 --> 00:12:47,457 Let's project the movie through a big glass window 271 00:12:47,458 --> 00:12:49,874 with this fireproof shutter. 272 00:12:49,875 --> 00:12:52,041 If the waxed around this shutter got hot enough 273 00:12:52,042 --> 00:12:54,749 because of a fire, then it would slam shut, 274 00:12:54,750 --> 00:12:55,957 which is great for the audience. 275 00:12:55,958 --> 00:12:57,624 It would keep them safe. 276 00:12:57,625 --> 00:13:00,832 The projectionist, on the other hand, is in great danger. 277 00:13:00,833 --> 00:13:03,832 Once a fire breaks out and those shutters close, 278 00:13:03,833 --> 00:13:06,707 his only hope is to make his way to the door, 279 00:13:06,708 --> 00:13:08,750 which hopefully isn't engulfed in flames. 280 00:13:10,083 --> 00:13:11,707 They took the poor projectionist 281 00:13:11,708 --> 00:13:12,957 and they said, okay, 282 00:13:12,958 --> 00:13:16,207 we're banishing you to a metal room up there, 283 00:13:16,208 --> 00:13:18,582 which is gonna be hot, but it's gonna keep 284 00:13:18,583 --> 00:13:20,832 everybody down in the theater safe, 285 00:13:20,833 --> 00:13:23,082 so if the film does go on fire, 286 00:13:23,083 --> 00:13:25,207 you're the only one that's really gonna get hurt. 287 00:13:25,208 --> 00:13:27,041 The people working as projectionists 288 00:13:27,042 --> 00:13:28,374 were not high school kids 289 00:13:28,375 --> 00:13:30,207 trying to make a few bucks after school. 290 00:13:30,208 --> 00:13:32,624 These were highly trained union members 291 00:13:32,625 --> 00:13:36,666 who had studied fire safety as well as electronics. 292 00:13:36,667 --> 00:13:38,666 It was just a stressful job. 293 00:13:38,667 --> 00:13:40,541 The whole time they're nervous, 294 00:13:40,542 --> 00:13:41,874 Am I gonna catch on fire, 295 00:13:41,875 --> 00:13:44,042 Am I gonna burn this whole movie house down? 296 00:13:45,250 --> 00:13:48,041 It's only in the 1920s and 1930s 297 00:13:48,042 --> 00:13:50,457 that we get what's called safety film. 298 00:13:50,458 --> 00:13:54,542 This replaces the nitrate and celluloid with acetate. 299 00:13:55,917 --> 00:13:58,416 But the studios and the professional filmmakers 300 00:13:58,417 --> 00:14:00,374 continue to use nitrate film 301 00:14:00,375 --> 00:14:02,999 because the picture quality is greater. 302 00:14:03,000 --> 00:14:06,124 Films like, "Citizen Kane," "Gone With The Wind," 303 00:14:06,125 --> 00:14:09,082 "Wizard of Oz," they're all shot on nitrate film. 304 00:14:09,083 --> 00:14:12,874 Sure, they may have to deal with spontaneous combustion, 305 00:14:12,875 --> 00:14:16,332 but for a true auteur, it's worth it. 306 00:14:16,333 --> 00:14:17,707 It might've been worth it 307 00:14:17,708 --> 00:14:20,832 for the studios, filmmakers and moviegoers, 308 00:14:20,833 --> 00:14:23,916 but for the projectionists, not so much. 309 00:14:23,917 --> 00:14:26,374 Could you imagine, you're in that projection booth 310 00:14:26,375 --> 00:14:28,832 and it catches fire 'cause think about it, 311 00:14:28,833 --> 00:14:31,124 you have a super hot bulb 312 00:14:31,125 --> 00:14:33,624 and you have a super flammable film going over it. 313 00:14:33,625 --> 00:14:35,167 They would catch up all the time. 314 00:14:36,625 --> 00:14:39,457 The dangers finally lead nitrate film 315 00:14:39,458 --> 00:14:42,332 to be discontinued in 1951. 316 00:14:42,333 --> 00:14:45,166 Thanks to conservation efforts, you can now watch 317 00:14:45,167 --> 00:14:48,207 some films from the nitrate era in digital format, 318 00:14:48,208 --> 00:14:50,250 but you really don't know what you're missing. 319 00:14:51,625 --> 00:14:54,916 I'll bet that most people were unaware of the risks 320 00:14:54,917 --> 00:14:57,207 for the person behind the projector, 321 00:14:57,208 --> 00:15:00,124 and they probably had no idea about the hazards 322 00:15:00,125 --> 00:15:02,749 faced by the workers who refined the gas 323 00:15:02,750 --> 00:15:04,791 that kept our cars running. 324 00:15:07,208 --> 00:15:09,999 By 1921, automakers have a huge problem. 325 00:15:10,000 --> 00:15:12,541 The engines that they use suffer from a problem 326 00:15:12,542 --> 00:15:14,374 that's called engine knock. 327 00:15:17,083 --> 00:15:19,416 Some drivers are so startled by the sound, 328 00:15:19,417 --> 00:15:22,249 they sometimes lose control of their vehicles. 329 00:15:22,250 --> 00:15:24,832 A scientist named Tom Midgley Jr. 330 00:15:24,833 --> 00:15:29,624 discovers a chemical additive he calls T-E-L 331 00:15:29,625 --> 00:15:32,082 that makes the knock go away. 332 00:15:32,083 --> 00:15:34,124 Both the automobile and the oil industry 333 00:15:34,125 --> 00:15:37,207 are thrilled with Midgley's anti-knock solution. 334 00:15:37,208 --> 00:15:40,041 They immediately pour money into production facilities 335 00:15:40,042 --> 00:15:43,124 and start advertising its wonders. 336 00:15:43,125 --> 00:15:46,082 One refinery that begins using this additive 337 00:15:46,083 --> 00:15:48,791 is a Standard Oil facility in the port 338 00:15:48,792 --> 00:15:51,207 of New York and New Jersey, 339 00:15:51,208 --> 00:15:53,166 But this is only one of countless products 340 00:15:53,167 --> 00:15:54,916 the refinery is constantly turning out 341 00:15:54,917 --> 00:15:57,124 for the diverse needs of America. 342 00:15:57,125 --> 00:15:59,499 But within a year of production, they find that some 343 00:15:59,500 --> 00:16:03,207 of the workers start to exhibit strange maladies. 344 00:16:03,208 --> 00:16:05,291 The men who work in the TEL buildings 345 00:16:05,292 --> 00:16:08,874 start to exhibit insomnia, memory loss, 346 00:16:08,875 --> 00:16:11,166 and these bouts of rage. 347 00:16:11,167 --> 00:16:13,874 One man even starts babbling deliriously, 348 00:16:13,875 --> 00:16:16,249 another gets taken out in a strait jacket. 349 00:16:16,250 --> 00:16:18,166 And this isn't just a few workers. 350 00:16:18,167 --> 00:16:21,457 65% of the workforce ends up in the hospital 351 00:16:21,458 --> 00:16:24,207 with some kind of mental health issue. 352 00:16:24,208 --> 00:16:27,624 Workers dubbed the factory the Loony Gas Building. 353 00:16:27,625 --> 00:16:31,541 To dismiss the concerns, Standard Oil ultimately releases 354 00:16:31,542 --> 00:16:34,041 a press statement saying that these men were probably 355 00:16:34,042 --> 00:16:37,207 driven to this because they worked too hard. 356 00:16:37,208 --> 00:16:40,874 Turns out it isn't how hard they're working, 357 00:16:40,875 --> 00:16:42,416 but what they're working on. 358 00:16:42,417 --> 00:16:44,374 Well, you know how the chemical additive 359 00:16:44,375 --> 00:16:45,999 is called T-E-L? 360 00:16:46,000 --> 00:16:50,249 Well, that stands for Tetra-Ethyl-Lead. 361 00:16:50,250 --> 00:16:52,916 The people working in the factory are handling lead 362 00:16:52,917 --> 00:16:56,250 and inhaling this fumes all day long. 363 00:16:57,750 --> 00:16:59,166 The dangers of lead exposure 364 00:16:59,167 --> 00:17:01,166 were already well known. 365 00:17:01,167 --> 00:17:04,041 In fact, dating back to 1786, 366 00:17:04,042 --> 00:17:06,332 Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter to a friend 367 00:17:06,333 --> 00:17:09,249 where he described his own experience 368 00:17:09,250 --> 00:17:11,416 with lead's harmful effects. 369 00:17:11,417 --> 00:17:13,374 But Standard Oil is not convinced 370 00:17:13,375 --> 00:17:15,249 that lead is causing these issues, 371 00:17:15,250 --> 00:17:17,207 so they do something that most PR firms 372 00:17:17,208 --> 00:17:19,041 today would not recommend. 373 00:17:19,042 --> 00:17:21,416 They hold a press conference featuring the creator 374 00:17:21,417 --> 00:17:24,250 of T-E-L himself, Thomas Midgley. 375 00:17:26,250 --> 00:17:28,666 They get Midgley there who then just basically 376 00:17:28,667 --> 00:17:31,499 rinses his hands in a bowl just filled with T-E-L 377 00:17:31,500 --> 00:17:33,791 saying like, look, I wouldn't do this if it was bad, 378 00:17:33,792 --> 00:17:35,124 look at me. 379 00:17:35,125 --> 00:17:36,541 I'm totally fine. 380 00:17:36,542 --> 00:17:39,041 Can you imagine someone doing that today? 381 00:17:39,042 --> 00:17:41,041 Doubtful. 382 00:17:41,042 --> 00:17:43,332 Leaded gasoline still continues to be sold 383 00:17:43,333 --> 00:17:45,207 for the next 70 years. 384 00:17:45,208 --> 00:17:46,457 For those of us who remember 385 00:17:46,458 --> 00:17:49,082 growing up before the mid 1990s, 386 00:17:49,083 --> 00:17:51,041 you will remember pulling into a gas station 387 00:17:51,042 --> 00:17:54,666 and being asked if you want regular or unleaded. 388 00:17:54,667 --> 00:17:57,374 Most compact and imported cars can be operated 389 00:17:57,375 --> 00:18:00,832 on leaded regular grade gasoline for maximum economy. 390 00:18:00,833 --> 00:18:04,666 I remember pulling in and buying regular gasoline 391 00:18:04,667 --> 00:18:06,541 because it was cheaper. 392 00:18:06,542 --> 00:18:10,124 Now, leaded gas was sold up until 1996, 393 00:18:10,125 --> 00:18:12,041 and you remember Midgley, right? 394 00:18:12,042 --> 00:18:13,874 Well, it turns out right after that stunt, 395 00:18:13,875 --> 00:18:16,499 he took a little vacation to Florida 396 00:18:16,500 --> 00:18:18,999 where he was treated for lead poisoning. 397 00:18:19,000 --> 00:18:22,374 Though the US hit the brakes on leaded gas in the '90s, 398 00:18:22,375 --> 00:18:25,249 it took until 2021 before the world 399 00:18:25,250 --> 00:18:27,374 finally phased out leaded gasoline 400 00:18:27,375 --> 00:18:29,417 for road vehicles entirely. 401 00:18:33,375 --> 00:18:35,499 There used to be a time when all men wore hats. 402 00:18:35,500 --> 00:18:38,457 They were a symbol of their social status. 403 00:18:38,458 --> 00:18:42,249 But in one New England town, the people making the hats 404 00:18:42,250 --> 00:18:45,333 found the work a bit maddening. 405 00:18:46,708 --> 00:18:50,374 By 1890 Danbury's known as the hat city of the world. 406 00:18:50,375 --> 00:18:54,874 It's 33 factories are pumping out 5 million hats a year. 407 00:18:54,875 --> 00:18:58,666 Each of these 5 million hats is made from animal fur, 408 00:18:58,667 --> 00:19:01,957 either rabbit or beaver, and made through a process 409 00:19:01,958 --> 00:19:03,499 called carroting. 410 00:19:03,500 --> 00:19:06,207 Carroting gets its name from the orange colored solution 411 00:19:06,208 --> 00:19:08,332 that helps remove the fur from the animal 412 00:19:08,333 --> 00:19:10,249 and turns it into felt. 413 00:19:10,250 --> 00:19:11,707 So you might be wondering, 414 00:19:11,708 --> 00:19:14,291 what is this miracle solution made of? 415 00:19:14,292 --> 00:19:17,207 Turns out it's a silvery white chemical 416 00:19:17,208 --> 00:19:19,500 that we call mercury. 417 00:19:20,708 --> 00:19:22,457 The closest most people in the model world 418 00:19:22,458 --> 00:19:27,207 get to mercury is in a thermometer, which if broken, 419 00:19:27,208 --> 00:19:29,082 you are supposed to open a window, 420 00:19:29,083 --> 00:19:31,707 throw it away, and call poison control. 421 00:19:31,708 --> 00:19:34,499 Even at low levels, mercury can cause damage 422 00:19:34,500 --> 00:19:37,082 to the brain, heart, lungs, and kidneys. 423 00:19:37,083 --> 00:19:39,374 And what the hat makers of Danbury, Connecticut 424 00:19:39,375 --> 00:19:44,375 and elsewhere are exposed to is way above low levels. 425 00:19:45,708 --> 00:19:48,374 These hat makers spend hours a day handling mercury, 426 00:19:48,375 --> 00:19:50,582 which is absorbed through the skin, 427 00:19:50,583 --> 00:19:54,207 but also inhaling the fumes, which go right to the lungs 428 00:19:54,208 --> 00:19:55,791 and then to the brain. 429 00:19:55,792 --> 00:19:58,291 This leads to a huge number of hat makers 430 00:19:58,292 --> 00:20:02,207 suffering from the effects of mercury poisoning. 431 00:20:02,208 --> 00:20:05,374 Mercury poisoning is pretty unpleasant. 432 00:20:05,375 --> 00:20:07,499 Sufferers experience a wide variety of symptoms. 433 00:20:07,500 --> 00:20:11,082 Painful itching, burning, peeling skin, a loss of hair 434 00:20:11,083 --> 00:20:14,499 and teeth, swelling, sweating, and asthma. 435 00:20:14,500 --> 00:20:19,416 There's also slurred speech, dizziness, mental confusion, 436 00:20:19,417 --> 00:20:22,041 which is actually the root of the expression 437 00:20:22,042 --> 00:20:23,833 as mad as a hatter. 438 00:20:25,250 --> 00:20:27,374 It turns out that you don't get poisoned 439 00:20:27,375 --> 00:20:30,249 from wearing the hats, just from making them. 440 00:20:30,250 --> 00:20:33,374 That's because the hats have a protective lining 441 00:20:33,375 --> 00:20:35,874 that prevents the mercury from seeping into your brain. 442 00:20:35,875 --> 00:20:38,416 The hat manufacturers aren't particularly concerned. 443 00:20:38,417 --> 00:20:40,832 In fact, they often attribute workers' health problems 444 00:20:40,833 --> 00:20:43,332 to alcoholism because they share a lot 445 00:20:43,333 --> 00:20:46,291 of the same outward symptoms like slurred speech, 446 00:20:46,292 --> 00:20:48,207 confusion, and tremors. 447 00:20:48,208 --> 00:20:51,499 So eventually the use of mercury in hat making 448 00:20:51,500 --> 00:20:53,666 comes to an end, but it's not because of the poisoning. 449 00:20:53,667 --> 00:20:58,416 In 1914, the war in Europe breaks out and mercury 450 00:20:58,417 --> 00:21:03,166 is too important to the war effort to be used in hat making. 451 00:21:03,167 --> 00:21:06,416 Not only that, but fashion is a fickle beast as we know, 452 00:21:06,417 --> 00:21:09,124 so by the Great Depression, tall felt hats 453 00:21:09,125 --> 00:21:11,875 have fallen out of style, at least for men. 454 00:21:13,458 --> 00:21:16,166 Hat making wasn't the only profession where they neglected 455 00:21:16,167 --> 00:21:18,624 to put the risks in the job description. 456 00:21:18,625 --> 00:21:21,541 When X-ray technology was brought to shoe stores, 457 00:21:21,542 --> 00:21:25,291 the results weren't exactly a perfect fit. 458 00:21:25,292 --> 00:21:29,457 In 1895, a German physicist, Wilhelm Rontgen, 459 00:21:29,458 --> 00:21:33,707 discovers a radioactive wave everywhere. 460 00:21:33,708 --> 00:21:37,000 He doesn't know what to call it, so he calls it the X-rays. 461 00:21:38,500 --> 00:21:41,874 Through the miracle of X-rays, doctors can see bones, 462 00:21:41,875 --> 00:21:44,624 can see structure, and then better ascertain 463 00:21:44,625 --> 00:21:47,499 what treatments patients will need. 464 00:21:47,500 --> 00:21:50,291 A doctor in Boston, Jacob Lowe realizes 465 00:21:50,292 --> 00:21:53,416 that he can use X-rays in his practice 466 00:21:53,417 --> 00:21:57,207 and comes up with an innovative device. 467 00:21:57,208 --> 00:21:59,249 Lowe designs an X-ray machine for a foot, 468 00:21:59,250 --> 00:22:01,332 and it's essentially a box. 469 00:22:01,333 --> 00:22:03,749 The bottom of the box has an X-ray tube 470 00:22:03,750 --> 00:22:06,332 and then a slot just above it for where the foot goes in, 471 00:22:06,333 --> 00:22:08,207 and then there's a screen on top 472 00:22:08,208 --> 00:22:11,916 which people can look down on and see the bones in the foot. 473 00:22:11,917 --> 00:22:14,957 The device allows Dr. Lowe to examine patients 474 00:22:14,958 --> 00:22:17,374 suffering from foot pain without needing 475 00:22:17,375 --> 00:22:20,917 to remove their shoes, which gives him an idea. 476 00:22:22,333 --> 00:22:23,707 Lowe is trying to figure out what to do 477 00:22:23,708 --> 00:22:25,874 with this machine he's invented, 478 00:22:25,875 --> 00:22:29,374 and then it hits him, retail shoe stores. 479 00:22:29,375 --> 00:22:31,541 Lowe modifies his device and brings it 480 00:22:31,542 --> 00:22:35,541 to a shoe retailers convention in Boston in 1920. 481 00:22:35,542 --> 00:22:39,541 He names it the Foot-O-Scope and it immediately generates 482 00:22:39,542 --> 00:22:42,707 a lot of interest within the industry. 483 00:22:42,708 --> 00:22:45,666 Lowe starts the X-ray Foot-O-Scope Corporation. 484 00:22:45,667 --> 00:22:48,041 He finds a manufacturer to build his machine 485 00:22:48,042 --> 00:22:50,416 and starts taking orders. 486 00:22:50,417 --> 00:22:52,916 In March, 1920, the Pittsburgh Post Gazette 487 00:22:52,917 --> 00:22:55,916 reports that the foot scope helps diagnose 488 00:22:55,917 --> 00:22:59,874 a misaligned big toe of a local lion tamer. 489 00:22:59,875 --> 00:23:03,041 You can't beat that for publicity. 490 00:23:03,042 --> 00:23:06,124 By the fall, shoe stores are running newspaper ads 491 00:23:06,125 --> 00:23:08,041 promoting this brand new device. 492 00:23:08,042 --> 00:23:11,291 Soon shoe salesmen around the country 493 00:23:11,292 --> 00:23:12,875 are clamoring for the machine. 494 00:23:14,042 --> 00:23:16,416 These machines become standard for the industry, 495 00:23:16,417 --> 00:23:18,457 and the result is shoe salesmen 496 00:23:18,458 --> 00:23:21,082 have to become these X-ray technicians. 497 00:23:21,083 --> 00:23:23,999 These machines are so popular through the 1930s, 498 00:23:24,000 --> 00:23:25,374 '40s and into the '50s. 499 00:23:25,375 --> 00:23:28,707 More than 10,000 of these shoe fitting devices 500 00:23:28,708 --> 00:23:31,207 are sold to stores across America. 501 00:23:31,208 --> 00:23:34,999 It should be noted the absurdity of this situation. 502 00:23:35,000 --> 00:23:39,582 There are X-ray machines, not in hospitals 503 00:23:39,583 --> 00:23:44,499 or laboratories administered by doctors or scientists. 504 00:23:44,500 --> 00:23:49,500 They're in shoe stores administered by shoe salesman. 505 00:23:50,625 --> 00:23:52,874 When you slide your feet into the bottom, 506 00:23:52,875 --> 00:23:55,082 you are basically standing directly 507 00:23:55,083 --> 00:23:57,041 on top of an X-ray tube. 508 00:23:57,042 --> 00:23:59,207 There is no protection at all. 509 00:23:59,208 --> 00:24:02,999 People are doing it repeatedly, and the shoe salespeople 510 00:24:03,000 --> 00:24:06,666 are in there all day getting exposed to X-rays. 511 00:24:06,667 --> 00:24:08,916 Salesmen are constantly putting their hands in 512 00:24:08,917 --> 00:24:11,457 and out of the machines, and we know today 513 00:24:11,458 --> 00:24:13,457 just to get a single dental X-ray, 514 00:24:13,458 --> 00:24:16,124 they throw that heavy lead thing 515 00:24:16,125 --> 00:24:19,041 over you just for one X-ray. 516 00:24:19,042 --> 00:24:20,582 I mean, I get it. 517 00:24:20,583 --> 00:24:23,041 If there was a safe way for me able to look at my bones, 518 00:24:23,042 --> 00:24:24,457 I would totally take it. 519 00:24:24,458 --> 00:24:26,041 But that is not what happened. 520 00:24:26,042 --> 00:24:27,207 If you were a shoe salesman, 521 00:24:27,208 --> 00:24:29,707 you were around that machine all day. 522 00:24:29,708 --> 00:24:31,582 Your job isn't bad enough, 523 00:24:31,583 --> 00:24:33,874 but you're also getting bombarded with radiation. 524 00:24:35,208 --> 00:24:36,874 It's not until after World War II ends 525 00:24:36,875 --> 00:24:39,457 that the general public becomes more aware 526 00:24:39,458 --> 00:24:42,125 of the potential dangers of radiation. 527 00:24:43,542 --> 00:24:46,416 The atomic bomb makes radiation real for people, 528 00:24:46,417 --> 00:24:48,374 but that doesn't mean that stores 529 00:24:48,375 --> 00:24:50,707 immediately get rid of their Foot-O-Scopes. 530 00:24:50,708 --> 00:24:52,916 After all, they paid a great deal of money 531 00:24:52,917 --> 00:24:56,749 for these machines, and they're incredibly effective 532 00:24:56,750 --> 00:24:59,541 at bringing customers into the store. 533 00:24:59,542 --> 00:25:00,832 One shoe store owner has bragged 534 00:25:00,833 --> 00:25:03,332 that he has put his own feet in one 30 times 535 00:25:03,333 --> 00:25:05,541 in a single day, and he feels fine. 536 00:25:05,542 --> 00:25:07,542 How could a scientist argue with that? 537 00:25:08,583 --> 00:25:11,041 But actual evidence begins to mount. 538 00:25:11,042 --> 00:25:14,291 Reports of shoe store salesmen getting radiation burns 539 00:25:14,292 --> 00:25:16,958 and tissue damage begins to circulate. 540 00:25:18,208 --> 00:25:21,291 In 1953, the Food and Drug Administration steps in 541 00:25:21,292 --> 00:25:23,749 and bans the devices outright. 542 00:25:23,750 --> 00:25:27,000 Shoe store X-ray machines become a thing of the past. 543 00:25:30,083 --> 00:25:32,874 Today we get our feet measured in a simpler, 544 00:25:32,875 --> 00:25:36,249 probably more efficient way, thanks to what's known 545 00:25:36,250 --> 00:25:37,874 as the Brannock Device. 546 00:25:37,875 --> 00:25:40,874 That's right, that metal contraption has a name. 547 00:25:40,875 --> 00:25:43,500 And we leave X-rays to medical professionals. 548 00:25:47,750 --> 00:25:49,624 Most jobs are difficult. 549 00:25:49,625 --> 00:25:51,457 Some take sweat, some take tears, 550 00:25:51,458 --> 00:25:54,291 but this next profession took blood 551 00:25:54,292 --> 00:25:57,000 and it quite literally sucked. 552 00:25:58,083 --> 00:25:59,791 At the turn of the 19th century, 553 00:25:59,792 --> 00:26:03,124 American physicians use procedures 554 00:26:03,125 --> 00:26:06,291 that date back millennia to treat their patients. 555 00:26:06,292 --> 00:26:08,042 They apply leeches. 556 00:26:09,500 --> 00:26:13,124 Leeches ability to remove germs and bacteria from blood 557 00:26:13,125 --> 00:26:16,041 means the doctors continue to use them on their patients, 558 00:26:16,042 --> 00:26:18,291 putting them on their throats and thighs. 559 00:26:18,292 --> 00:26:22,207 Leeches are not easy to obtain, which brings about one 560 00:26:22,208 --> 00:26:24,207 of the most gruesome, dangerous, 561 00:26:24,208 --> 00:26:28,957 hazardous and sort of grossest professions in history. 562 00:26:28,958 --> 00:26:31,832 Leeches are collected in the wild and in the early 1800s, 563 00:26:31,833 --> 00:26:34,666 they were most often collected by poor women. 564 00:26:34,667 --> 00:26:37,124 They're called, Leech Collectors. 565 00:26:37,125 --> 00:26:39,707 They would hoist up their skirts 566 00:26:39,708 --> 00:26:43,541 and wade into dirty bogs, ponds, marshes, 567 00:26:43,542 --> 00:26:45,707 and they would catch these leches by hand 568 00:26:45,708 --> 00:26:50,791 and by leg and arm and ugh, 569 00:26:50,792 --> 00:26:53,916 wherever the leches would just attach, 570 00:26:53,917 --> 00:26:57,249 they were basically human traps. 571 00:26:57,250 --> 00:27:00,874 The leech collectors have to wait for the leches to fill 572 00:27:00,875 --> 00:27:03,624 with their blood before they can be collected. 573 00:27:03,625 --> 00:27:04,791 Think about it for a second. 574 00:27:04,792 --> 00:27:07,457 You're standing waist deep in a bog 575 00:27:07,458 --> 00:27:10,874 watching this little blood sucker attach itself to you, 576 00:27:10,875 --> 00:27:13,416 get engorged with your own blood 577 00:27:13,417 --> 00:27:16,207 and you're paid just pennies for it. 578 00:27:16,208 --> 00:27:18,416 The leches suck on the legs of the collector 579 00:27:18,417 --> 00:27:20,082 for up to 30 minutes. 580 00:27:20,083 --> 00:27:23,666 If you consider that each leech ingests one to two teaspoons 581 00:27:23,667 --> 00:27:27,041 of blood, multiply that by the hundreds of leeches 582 00:27:27,042 --> 00:27:29,541 that these women have attached to them each day. 583 00:27:29,542 --> 00:27:31,791 That is serious blood loss. 584 00:27:31,792 --> 00:27:35,666 Even the act of pulling the leech off is a nightmare. 585 00:27:35,667 --> 00:27:39,041 They're easiest to remove once they're fully fed, 586 00:27:39,042 --> 00:27:42,666 but that still doesn't mean that there aren't risks. 587 00:27:42,667 --> 00:27:44,624 If you improperly remove the leech, 588 00:27:44,625 --> 00:27:47,208 its jaws can remain behind. 589 00:27:48,542 --> 00:27:52,207 A leech collector's risk of infection is through the roof. 590 00:27:52,208 --> 00:27:56,041 These women are deep in dirty water with gaping wounds 591 00:27:56,042 --> 00:27:58,874 from the leches all over their bodies. 592 00:27:58,875 --> 00:28:00,916 They're subject to cholera, 593 00:28:00,917 --> 00:28:04,457 dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis. 594 00:28:04,458 --> 00:28:08,499 Common diarrhea is probably the least of their concerns. 595 00:28:08,500 --> 00:28:09,916 And you thought your workplace was bad 596 00:28:09,917 --> 00:28:11,375 'cause someone ate your lunch. 597 00:28:12,917 --> 00:28:14,957 The 20th century sees the medical community 598 00:28:14,958 --> 00:28:17,791 move away from the human leech collectors 599 00:28:17,792 --> 00:28:20,499 and to a safer, more hygienic method. 600 00:28:20,500 --> 00:28:25,707 By the 1930s and '40s, leeches used in medical procedures 601 00:28:25,708 --> 00:28:27,707 are actually coming from certified 602 00:28:27,708 --> 00:28:30,874 and sterile labs that are growing leches 603 00:28:30,875 --> 00:28:33,249 specifically for medical purposes. 604 00:28:33,250 --> 00:28:37,957 The day of the old swamp to skin leech is over. 605 00:28:37,958 --> 00:28:40,082 Leches are used today in plastic 606 00:28:40,083 --> 00:28:41,832 and reconstructive surgeries. 607 00:28:41,833 --> 00:28:44,499 That's because the natural anticoagulants 608 00:28:44,500 --> 00:28:46,832 that they secrete prevent blood clots 609 00:28:46,833 --> 00:28:49,041 and help to restore blood flow. 610 00:28:49,042 --> 00:28:51,457 In 2004, the Food and Drug Administration 611 00:28:51,458 --> 00:28:55,041 officially approves leeches as a medical device 612 00:28:55,042 --> 00:28:57,832 and requires them to be disposed of 613 00:28:57,833 --> 00:29:01,041 in those red sharps containers just like needles. 614 00:29:01,042 --> 00:29:04,332 So that means that the FDA now has to control 615 00:29:04,333 --> 00:29:07,416 and approve your beef, your prescriptions, 616 00:29:07,417 --> 00:29:10,457 your eyeliner, and your leeches. 617 00:29:10,458 --> 00:29:14,041 Collecting leeches had many women tempting fate, 618 00:29:14,042 --> 00:29:17,833 but with this next job, the women were playing with fire. 619 00:29:20,417 --> 00:29:23,124 While humans have been making fire for 2 million years, 620 00:29:23,125 --> 00:29:25,041 it isn't until the early 1800s 621 00:29:25,042 --> 00:29:28,208 that we finally figure out how to do it a lot more easily. 622 00:29:29,375 --> 00:29:32,791 In 1826, John Walker, a chemist in England, 623 00:29:32,792 --> 00:29:34,541 discovers that a piece of stick 624 00:29:34,542 --> 00:29:38,041 coated with certain chemicals can light on fire 625 00:29:38,042 --> 00:29:40,707 when scratched across his fireplace. 626 00:29:40,708 --> 00:29:43,916 He calls them friction matches. 627 00:29:43,917 --> 00:29:46,541 These early friction matches, they don't work that well. 628 00:29:46,542 --> 00:29:47,999 Sometimes they don't light at all 629 00:29:48,000 --> 00:29:50,833 because you have to scrape them so hard to get them going. 630 00:29:53,042 --> 00:29:55,207 Luckily, by the 1840s, chemists come up 631 00:29:55,208 --> 00:29:58,083 with a great new solution, white phosphorus. 632 00:29:59,208 --> 00:30:00,874 Matches made with white phosphorus 633 00:30:00,875 --> 00:30:03,999 can be lit on almost any surface with very little effort. 634 00:30:04,000 --> 00:30:06,375 It's a real game changer and it's a huge innovation. 635 00:30:07,583 --> 00:30:09,124 These days we take for granted 636 00:30:09,125 --> 00:30:12,041 how easy it is to start a fire, but in the old days, 637 00:30:12,042 --> 00:30:14,916 you had to rub two sticks together or find some flint. 638 00:30:14,917 --> 00:30:16,332 You needed to be a MacGyver. 639 00:30:16,333 --> 00:30:18,999 So people go nuts for these miracle fire starters. 640 00:30:19,000 --> 00:30:21,124 Pretty soon there are dozens of factories 641 00:30:21,125 --> 00:30:24,167 that can churn out 10 million matches a day. 642 00:30:25,167 --> 00:30:26,749 The factories making these matches 643 00:30:26,750 --> 00:30:28,874 are typically staffed by young women. 644 00:30:28,875 --> 00:30:31,041 It's one of the few jobs they can actually get. 645 00:30:31,042 --> 00:30:33,208 So in that way, it's a pretty sweet gig. 646 00:30:34,292 --> 00:30:35,582 The women who work in these factories 647 00:30:35,583 --> 00:30:39,041 even get a cool nickname, the Matchstick Girls. 648 00:30:39,042 --> 00:30:40,416 But there's a problem. 649 00:30:40,417 --> 00:30:44,082 White phosphorus is a very dangerous chemical. 650 00:30:44,083 --> 00:30:46,374 Today, the most common use of white phosphorus 651 00:30:46,375 --> 00:30:50,292 is by the military for making grenades and artillery shells. 652 00:30:51,750 --> 00:30:55,207 White phosphorus can burn your skin, 653 00:30:55,208 --> 00:30:58,999 it can burn your eyes, and it can irritate your lungs. 654 00:30:59,000 --> 00:31:01,791 The gums would glow in the dark, teeth could fall out, 655 00:31:01,792 --> 00:31:05,208 and prolonged exposure could make their jaws disintegrate. 656 00:31:06,708 --> 00:31:10,041 Doctors at the time refer to this condition as phossy jaw. 657 00:31:10,042 --> 00:31:12,416 Phossy is short for phosphorus. 658 00:31:12,417 --> 00:31:14,916 You know, things are pretty bad when the medical profession 659 00:31:14,917 --> 00:31:16,958 is coming up with this weird nickname. 660 00:31:18,792 --> 00:31:20,832 Not exactly the kind of substance 661 00:31:20,833 --> 00:31:24,874 you'd wanna handle all day, every day. 662 00:31:24,875 --> 00:31:27,291 Eventually chemists come up with a new innovation, 663 00:31:27,292 --> 00:31:30,416 a new product, and by 1910, white phosphorus 664 00:31:30,417 --> 00:31:31,333 is being phased out. 665 00:31:33,542 --> 00:31:38,166 Today we use red phosphorus, a much safer alternative. 666 00:31:38,167 --> 00:31:41,375 And that's why your favorite matches have red tips. 667 00:31:45,042 --> 00:31:47,041 For most of us, the last time 668 00:31:47,042 --> 00:31:49,041 we saw a chimney sweep was in, "Mary Poppins." 669 00:31:49,042 --> 00:31:51,874 But did you ever wonder how a full grown man 670 00:31:51,875 --> 00:31:55,124 could get inside a chimney to do that job? 671 00:31:55,125 --> 00:32:00,125 The answer was he didn't, but someone else did. 672 00:32:03,542 --> 00:32:07,749 So in 1666, a massive fire just spreads across London. 673 00:32:07,750 --> 00:32:09,416 It completely guts the city. 674 00:32:09,417 --> 00:32:12,249 This prompts a change in the building code 675 00:32:12,250 --> 00:32:15,791 requiring much narrower chimneys. 676 00:32:15,792 --> 00:32:17,332 Chimneys at the time weren't long 677 00:32:17,333 --> 00:32:18,874 and straight like they are today. 678 00:32:18,875 --> 00:32:20,041 They were curved. 679 00:32:20,042 --> 00:32:21,874 They were at jagged angles, 680 00:32:21,875 --> 00:32:24,207 and so you couldn't just take a simple tool 681 00:32:24,208 --> 00:32:26,417 and run it down the length of the chimney. 682 00:32:28,083 --> 00:32:30,082 These chimneys that used to be this big 683 00:32:30,083 --> 00:32:32,207 that a man could just walk in and clean out 684 00:32:32,208 --> 00:32:34,124 are now about this big. 685 00:32:34,125 --> 00:32:38,042 So they need smaller people to go ahead and do the job. 686 00:32:39,083 --> 00:32:40,582 Throughout most of Europe 687 00:32:40,583 --> 00:32:43,332 and the United States, if your chimney's being swept, 688 00:32:43,333 --> 00:32:45,583 it's likely a kid is doing the sweeping. 689 00:32:47,042 --> 00:32:49,041 These young boys sort of clamber up 690 00:32:49,042 --> 00:32:51,207 with their scraping tools and their brushing tools. 691 00:32:51,208 --> 00:32:53,999 When they get to the top, they slide right back down. 692 00:32:54,000 --> 00:32:55,707 They collect the pile of soot, 693 00:32:55,708 --> 00:32:57,041 they give it to the master sweep, 694 00:32:57,042 --> 00:32:59,457 who then sells it to farmers as fertilizer. 695 00:32:59,458 --> 00:33:02,291 Some of these chimneys are 60 feet tall, 696 00:33:02,292 --> 00:33:06,999 and the opening inside is between nine and 14 inches wide. 697 00:33:07,000 --> 00:33:08,249 When the pressure is on 698 00:33:08,250 --> 00:33:11,124 to get the job done fast, the boss has a solution 699 00:33:11,125 --> 00:33:13,999 that would be frowned upon today. 700 00:33:14,000 --> 00:33:16,166 These master chimney sweeps had a way 701 00:33:16,167 --> 00:33:18,666 of motivating the apprentices. 702 00:33:18,667 --> 00:33:22,041 You've heard the expression light a fire under someone. 703 00:33:22,042 --> 00:33:24,416 Well, this is where that expression comes from. 704 00:33:24,417 --> 00:33:28,207 The way to get kids to sweep up to like 20 chimneys a day 705 00:33:28,208 --> 00:33:30,666 is to literally light a fire under them 706 00:33:30,667 --> 00:33:34,249 to quote, unquote, motivate them to get up that chimney 707 00:33:34,250 --> 00:33:36,707 and clean it as fast as possible. 708 00:33:36,708 --> 00:33:39,207 Now, you probably think of yourself, how is this possible? 709 00:33:39,208 --> 00:33:42,166 How is it okay to just shove kids in chimneys 710 00:33:42,167 --> 00:33:44,082 with a broom and let them sweep it? 711 00:33:44,083 --> 00:33:46,124 Oh, that's because the first child labor laws 712 00:33:46,125 --> 00:33:48,291 weren't until 1916. 713 00:33:48,292 --> 00:33:50,041 What brings an end to this practice 714 00:33:50,042 --> 00:33:52,082 is actually innovation. 715 00:33:52,083 --> 00:33:54,707 Joseph Glass, an engineer, designs a new method 716 00:33:54,708 --> 00:33:57,832 for cleaning chimneys that is much more efficient. 717 00:33:57,833 --> 00:34:00,082 He develops a chimney sweep device 718 00:34:00,083 --> 00:34:02,041 that consists of a series of rods 719 00:34:02,042 --> 00:34:04,624 that are capable of bending, so that the device 720 00:34:04,625 --> 00:34:08,541 can follow the curves and the angles of the chimney, 721 00:34:08,542 --> 00:34:11,500 and this becomes the chimney sweep brush that we know today. 722 00:34:13,750 --> 00:34:16,874 If you thought sending children up chimneys was wild, 723 00:34:16,875 --> 00:34:18,666 there was another job where kids 724 00:34:18,667 --> 00:34:21,667 had to be fast on their feet or watch out. 725 00:34:25,833 --> 00:34:29,457 Bowling has been popular in the US since the mid 1800s, 726 00:34:29,458 --> 00:34:33,041 but it wasn't until 1951 when an automatic pin setter 727 00:34:33,042 --> 00:34:34,541 was actually used. 728 00:34:34,542 --> 00:34:39,166 So, who is setting up all those pins all those years? 729 00:34:39,167 --> 00:34:43,041 It was a bunch of boys down at the end of the alley. 730 00:34:43,042 --> 00:34:45,124 Starting in the early 1900s, 731 00:34:45,125 --> 00:34:46,957 pin boys are a common fixture 732 00:34:46,958 --> 00:34:49,582 in bowling alleys across the us. 733 00:34:49,583 --> 00:34:51,582 It's funny to think about situations 734 00:34:51,583 --> 00:34:55,541 that will never exist again because time has moved on. 735 00:34:55,542 --> 00:34:56,707 Imagine it. 736 00:34:56,708 --> 00:34:58,874 You got your first job, you're a pin boy. 737 00:34:58,875 --> 00:35:00,374 You're gonna set up those pins. 738 00:35:00,375 --> 00:35:03,124 Pin boys work very hard for their money. 739 00:35:03,125 --> 00:35:04,541 They would either sit on a ledge 740 00:35:04,542 --> 00:35:06,874 or straddle the lane dividers, repositioning the pins, 741 00:35:06,875 --> 00:35:09,832 and then quickly hopping out of the way between throws. 742 00:35:11,458 --> 00:35:14,541 So you also have to be on high alert at all times 743 00:35:14,542 --> 00:35:17,666 because there are just projectiles flying. 744 00:35:17,667 --> 00:35:20,166 You'd have to get down on your stomach 745 00:35:20,167 --> 00:35:23,083 and slide through to reset one pin. 746 00:35:24,667 --> 00:35:27,374 By the 1930s, major American cities 747 00:35:27,375 --> 00:35:29,499 have hundreds of bowling alleys, 748 00:35:29,500 --> 00:35:32,832 each employing multiple pin boys per shift. 749 00:35:32,833 --> 00:35:36,416 Speed was such an important element of this job 750 00:35:36,417 --> 00:35:38,499 for the teenager trying to reset everything 751 00:35:38,500 --> 00:35:41,875 because a lot of times the people that were bowling 752 00:35:42,708 --> 00:35:44,707 may have had a few drinks. 753 00:35:44,708 --> 00:35:46,791 Everybody drinks, everybody bowls. 754 00:35:46,792 --> 00:35:51,041 Suddenly you got some big drunk jerk with his bowling team. 755 00:35:51,042 --> 00:35:53,749 Sometimes they would get a little crass, 756 00:35:53,750 --> 00:35:55,207 maybe think the pin setter's 757 00:35:55,208 --> 00:35:57,124 not setting the pins fast enough for them. 758 00:35:57,125 --> 00:35:58,374 And guess what? 759 00:35:58,375 --> 00:36:00,374 They're just gonna lob one down at 'em. 760 00:36:00,375 --> 00:36:01,749 Could you imagine? 761 00:36:01,750 --> 00:36:03,249 He got some drunk guy and he throws his bowl 762 00:36:03,250 --> 00:36:04,707 and he misses completely. 763 00:36:04,708 --> 00:36:07,541 If this kid's getting just crap on him from this guy 764 00:36:07,542 --> 00:36:10,332 who missed it, 'cause he's a bad bowler. 765 00:36:10,333 --> 00:36:11,999 Sometimes people wonder why we have 766 00:36:12,000 --> 00:36:13,832 such strict child labor laws. 767 00:36:13,833 --> 00:36:16,874 It's 'cause of what we used to do to kids in this country 768 00:36:16,875 --> 00:36:18,417 so that we could go bowling. 769 00:36:20,250 --> 00:36:22,457 But regulations aren't the main reason 770 00:36:22,458 --> 00:36:25,542 the job of pin boys becomes a thing of the past. 771 00:36:26,917 --> 00:36:28,332 So who do these boys have to thank 772 00:36:28,333 --> 00:36:30,291 for getting them out of harm's way? 773 00:36:30,292 --> 00:36:32,249 His name was Fred Schmidt. 774 00:36:32,250 --> 00:36:34,874 He developed an automatic pin setter 775 00:36:34,875 --> 00:36:36,250 and the rest is history. 776 00:36:40,208 --> 00:36:42,957 Today we take modern conveniences for granted, 777 00:36:42,958 --> 00:36:45,667 like how bowling balls are returned automatically. 778 00:36:49,583 --> 00:36:51,041 The potential dangers for being a mail carrier 779 00:36:51,042 --> 00:36:52,374 seem very obvious. 780 00:36:52,375 --> 00:36:54,541 Dog bites, extreme weather. 781 00:36:54,542 --> 00:36:57,791 But in the early 20th century, they were dying 782 00:36:57,792 --> 00:36:59,707 to get you your mail faster. 783 00:36:59,708 --> 00:37:01,541 Washington, DC, had been selected 784 00:37:01,542 --> 00:37:03,999 as the starting point for a sensational innovation 785 00:37:04,000 --> 00:37:05,541 in modern communication. 786 00:37:05,542 --> 00:37:08,041 The mail was going to take to the air. 787 00:37:08,042 --> 00:37:10,166 In 1918, the US Post Office 788 00:37:10,167 --> 00:37:12,874 establishes its first air mail service. 789 00:37:12,875 --> 00:37:15,291 For just 24 cents an ounce, 790 00:37:15,292 --> 00:37:17,999 you can have your post delivered to New York, 791 00:37:18,000 --> 00:37:19,707 to Washington, to Philadelphia. 792 00:37:19,708 --> 00:37:22,124 It's such a big deal that President Woodrow Wilson 793 00:37:22,125 --> 00:37:24,208 is there to witness the event. 794 00:37:25,542 --> 00:37:28,249 The plan is for one pilot each to take off 795 00:37:28,250 --> 00:37:30,457 from Washington and from New York. 796 00:37:30,458 --> 00:37:32,707 Together, they'll meet in Philadelphia, 797 00:37:32,708 --> 00:37:36,624 they'll exchange their parcels, and then two other pilots 798 00:37:36,625 --> 00:37:39,332 will finish the respective journeys. 799 00:37:39,333 --> 00:37:41,707 Unfortunately, things don't get off 800 00:37:41,708 --> 00:37:43,291 to a flying start. 801 00:37:43,292 --> 00:37:45,707 Thousands of people have gathered in a field in DC 802 00:37:45,708 --> 00:37:47,832 to watch the first air mail flight 803 00:37:47,833 --> 00:37:51,207 and the pilot, Army Lieutenant George Boyle, 804 00:37:51,208 --> 00:37:55,166 he's about to take off when they realize, 805 00:37:55,167 --> 00:37:57,917 oh, there's no gas in the plane. 806 00:37:59,417 --> 00:38:00,917 They forgot to fuel the plane. 807 00:38:02,000 --> 00:38:03,624 It seems obvious today, 808 00:38:03,625 --> 00:38:06,999 but this is the early days of aviation. 809 00:38:07,000 --> 00:38:09,207 There aren't the safety measures, the checklists, 810 00:38:09,208 --> 00:38:11,749 even the instrumentation that can guarantee 811 00:38:11,750 --> 00:38:14,749 that a plane's going to take off. 812 00:38:14,750 --> 00:38:18,457 They refuel the plane and the Curtiss Jenny takes off, 813 00:38:18,458 --> 00:38:21,166 Boyle at the helm on the way for the first leg 814 00:38:21,167 --> 00:38:22,916 from Washington to Philadelphia. 815 00:38:22,917 --> 00:38:26,458 Once he's in the air, Boyle rapidly gets lost, 816 00:38:27,542 --> 00:38:29,499 so he decides to make an emergency landing 817 00:38:29,500 --> 00:38:32,792 at a Maryland farm to get directions. 818 00:38:34,083 --> 00:38:36,791 As he descends to make his landing, 819 00:38:36,792 --> 00:38:40,499 Boyle wrecks his propeller and the plane 820 00:38:40,500 --> 00:38:42,041 is no longer air worthy. 821 00:38:42,042 --> 00:38:46,791 He gathers up his mail and returns to DC in disgrace. 822 00:38:46,792 --> 00:38:49,416 The whole operation is a huge failure. 823 00:38:49,417 --> 00:38:51,457 Things for air mail pilots 824 00:38:51,458 --> 00:38:54,041 only get worse and more dangerous from there. 825 00:38:54,042 --> 00:38:56,207 The truth is flying these planes in the early days 826 00:38:56,208 --> 00:38:58,374 of aviation, it just isn't safe. 827 00:38:58,375 --> 00:38:59,749 They're very basic. 828 00:38:59,750 --> 00:39:02,249 They have open cockpits, no safety features, 829 00:39:02,250 --> 00:39:04,374 no radios, no navigation tools. 830 00:39:04,375 --> 00:39:05,541 That's it. 831 00:39:05,542 --> 00:39:08,374 If they have to land and it's foggy 832 00:39:08,375 --> 00:39:11,832 or there's no visibility for whatever reason, 833 00:39:11,833 --> 00:39:16,291 they just basically have to land the plane on a prayer. 834 00:39:16,292 --> 00:39:17,916 So in the first week of operation 835 00:39:17,917 --> 00:39:20,708 six pilots flying for the post office die. 836 00:39:22,875 --> 00:39:24,541 The planes the post office are using 837 00:39:24,542 --> 00:39:26,957 aren't even the best for the time. 838 00:39:26,958 --> 00:39:30,041 The one they're typically using is the De Havilland DH-4, 839 00:39:30,042 --> 00:39:33,666 which has this fantastic nickname, the Flaming Coffin, 840 00:39:33,667 --> 00:39:35,874 and that's because it's got this design flaw 841 00:39:35,875 --> 00:39:39,874 where the fuel tank sits between the engine and the cockpit. 842 00:39:39,875 --> 00:39:43,166 This makes the planes prone to explosions 843 00:39:43,167 --> 00:39:47,124 in a bad landing, but they are Army surplus planes 844 00:39:47,125 --> 00:39:49,416 from World War I, so they're free, 845 00:39:49,417 --> 00:39:52,041 so the Post Office is gonna use them anyway. 846 00:39:52,042 --> 00:39:56,541 From 1918 to 1927, around 230 men fly for the Post Office 847 00:39:56,542 --> 00:39:59,457 and more than 30 die in crashes. 848 00:39:59,458 --> 00:40:02,249 The life expectancy for these pilots is estimated 849 00:40:02,250 --> 00:40:04,332 to be around 900 hours of flying. 850 00:40:04,333 --> 00:40:06,582 That's less than 40 days. 851 00:40:06,583 --> 00:40:09,374 These brave workers are given a nickname, 852 00:40:09,375 --> 00:40:11,457 the Suicide Club. 853 00:40:11,458 --> 00:40:13,207 You might think with the dangers of flying 854 00:40:13,208 --> 00:40:16,332 and also the fatalities associated with flying air mail, 855 00:40:16,333 --> 00:40:18,541 that this would be a job that nobody wanted, 856 00:40:18,542 --> 00:40:21,207 but thousands of people apply for these positions 857 00:40:21,208 --> 00:40:22,582 to fly air mail. 858 00:40:22,583 --> 00:40:25,707 There's something about the aura and the idea 859 00:40:25,708 --> 00:40:28,541 of flying a plane and flying a plane for the US government 860 00:40:28,542 --> 00:40:31,541 for the mail that is very attractive to young men. 861 00:40:31,542 --> 00:40:33,499 One of the most famous airmail pilots 862 00:40:33,500 --> 00:40:35,791 is none other than Charles Lindbergh. 863 00:40:35,792 --> 00:40:39,541 Before he flies solo across the Atlantic, he makes headlines 864 00:40:39,542 --> 00:40:42,874 for surviving multiple air mail crashes, including one 865 00:40:42,875 --> 00:40:46,041 where he parachutes into a barbed wire fence. 866 00:40:46,042 --> 00:40:47,832 Eventually, air mail gets safer 867 00:40:47,833 --> 00:40:51,874 thanks to regulations and a little bit of help. 868 00:40:51,875 --> 00:40:53,457 Almost as quickly as the postal service 869 00:40:53,458 --> 00:40:54,791 gets into the air mail business. 870 00:40:54,792 --> 00:40:56,207 They start getting out of it. 871 00:40:56,208 --> 00:40:59,957 In 1925, they begin outsourcing some airmail delivery 872 00:40:59,958 --> 00:41:01,582 to commercial airlines. 873 00:41:01,583 --> 00:41:04,332 And by 1927, all air mail is now being 874 00:41:04,333 --> 00:41:06,041 handled by commercial airlines. 875 00:41:06,042 --> 00:41:09,916 I think that sometimes we look back on some of these ideas 876 00:41:09,917 --> 00:41:12,582 and we're like, we never should have done those things. 877 00:41:12,583 --> 00:41:17,583 And maybe they're right, but we need to try these things 878 00:41:18,917 --> 00:41:20,958 because if we don't, we're losing out on something bigger. 879 00:41:23,417 --> 00:41:26,249 When thinking about the ways we used to work 880 00:41:26,250 --> 00:41:30,624 from radioactive shoe stores to sending kids up chimneys 881 00:41:30,625 --> 00:41:33,207 to building skyscrapers without a net, 882 00:41:33,208 --> 00:41:35,124 danger was business as usual. 883 00:41:35,125 --> 00:41:38,541 Sure, occupational hazards were everywhere, 884 00:41:38,542 --> 00:41:41,916 but as we learned to work smarter, not just harder, 885 00:41:41,917 --> 00:41:44,707 it paved the way for new innovations 886 00:41:44,708 --> 00:41:47,499 and navigating our hazardous history 887 00:41:47,500 --> 00:41:49,583 was all part of the job.