NARRATOR: FOR MOST OF OUR HISTORY,
WE HUMANS CONSIDERED OURSELVES UNIQUE.
OUR ABILITY TO SHAPE THE WORLD WE LIVE IN
SET US APART FROM ALL OTHER ANIMALS.
BUT NOW, A NEW, ARTIFICIAL SPECIES
MIGHT CHALLENGE OUR SUPERIORITY.
MECHANICAL BEINGS HAVE THE POTENTIAL
TO CHANGE EVERYTHING.
HOW WE GOT THEM IS A STORY
OF ASTONISHING TWISTS AND AMAZING TURNS.
IT WOULD TAKE AN ANCIENT GREEK LEGEND
AND A CHANCE CONVERSATION IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL,
A CHILD SHELTERED FROM THE EXCESSES
OF HER FAMOUS FATHER,
AND A MISSION TO MARS,
A DISASTER AT SEA,
AND A CUBIST PAINTER
TO GIVE US THE MACHINE THAT MAY TURN OUT TO BE THE MOST
REVOLUTIONARY TECHNOLOGY EVER CONCEIVED--THE ROBOT.
THESE ARE THE INVENTIONS
THAT DEFINE OUR AGE
AND HAVE CHANGED OUR WORLD FOREVER,
THAT ALLOWED US TO MOVE BOTH ON THE GROUND AND IN THE AIR,
TO CONNECT AND TO EXPLORE
THE FURTHEST REGIONS OF THE UNIVERSE,
EACH A MOMENT OF INGENUITY,
OF WONDER...
OH!
NARRATOR: OF BREAKTHROUGH.
NARRATOR: TODAY, ROBOTS ARE EVERYWHERE,
EVEN IN MUSIC VIDEOS.
THEY BUILD CARS,
ELECTRONICS, ANYTHING YOU CAN THINK OF.
WHILE SOME ARE BUILT TO ENTERTAIN,
ALL EXPLORE THE LIMITS OF WHAT A MECHANICAL SYSTEM CAN ACHIEVE.
BUT THE AGE OF THE ROBOT IS JUST BEGINNING.
MAN: WHERE WE ARE WITH ROBOTS TODAY IS PROBABLY
ABOUT WHERE WE WERE WITH COMPUTERS IN THE 1950s.
♪
WE KNEW THE BASIC CONCEPTS, WE'VE BUILT SOME,
THEY PERFORMED SOME FUNCTIONS,
BUT WE'RE ONLY STARTING TO EXPLORE THE POSSIBILITY
OF OUR RELATIONSHIP WITH THIS KIND OF MACHINE.
NARRATOR: A NEW BREED OF ROBOT IS TAKING SHAPE
IN LABORATORIES ALL OVER THE WORLD,
A KIND OF ROBOT THAT CAN DO MORE THAN JUST MAKE THINGS
OR PERFORM REPETITIVE TASKS.
HEY, iCUB.
NARRATOR: THESE ARE ROBOTS THAT WILL INTERACT WITH US,
BECOME OUR FRIENDS,
OR PERHAPS OUR ENEMIES.
MEIGS: DO WE WANT ROBOTS AS FRIENDS?
DO WE WANT ROBOTS AS SEXUAL PARTNERS?
DO YOU WANT A PLANE THAT FLIES ITSELF, OR DO YOU WANT
A PLANE WITH A ROBOT PILOT SITTING IN THE PILOT'S SEAT?
IT'S A REALLY FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION.
I ACTUALLY THINK THAT WE'RE GOING TO NEED A LOT MORE ROBOTS
THAN PEOPLE EXPECT.
THEY'RE NOT GOING TO TAKE AWAY JOBS.
THEY'RE GOING TO FILL THE ROLE OF PREVIOUSLY EXPLOITED,
LOW-COST LABOR.
NARRATOR: THESE NEW ROBOTS WILL
FULFILL A DREAM THAT IS SURPRISINGLY ANCIENT.
IT BEGINS NOT HUNDREDS,
BUT THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO,
WITH THE ANCIENT GREEKS.
HOMER, WRITING IN 800 BC,
TOLD THE LEGEND OF THE GREEK GOD
OF FIRE AND CRAFTSMEN...
[THUNDER]
HEPHAESTUS.
THE STORY GOES THAT, EXPELLED FROM MOUNT OLYMPUS...
HE FORGED TWO MECHANICAL HANDMAIDENS.
THE TALE BECAME PART OF GREEK CULTURE, AND THE IDEA
OF HUMAN-LIKE MACHINES WITH MIRACULOUS POWERS
WAS BORN.
ABOUT 800 YEARS LATER,
AN INVENTOR NAMED HERO OF ALEXANDRIA
DECIDED TO MAKE THE DREAM COME TRUE.
HE DESIGNED MACHINES THAT COULD PROPEL THEMSELVES ONTO A STAGE.
FIGURINES WOULD PERFORM A SERIES OF ACTIONS,
SUCH AS LIGHTING FIRES AND POURING WINE.
BUT IT WAS IN THE 9th CENTURY AD,
USING LITTLE MORE THAN WOOD, WIRES, AND THEIR OWN GENIUS,
THAT 3 BROTHERS BUILT A MACHINE THAT WOULD LEAD
NOT JUST TO ROBOTS,
BUT TO THE MODERN DIGITAL AGE.
MAN: IT HAPPENED HERE-- BAGHDAD, IN MESOPOTAMIA,
MODERN-DAY IRAQ--AND HERE, THE HOUSE OF WISDOM,
A LOOSE SOCIETY OF THINKERS THAT DEBATED
AND ENCOURAGED THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE.
THREE OF THE MEMBERS ARE BROTHERS--
THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS.
THEY HAVE A PASSION FOR AUTOMATA,
SO MUCH SO THAT THEY WROTE THIS,
"THE BOOK OF INGENIOUS DEVICES,"
WHICH WAS THE GREATEST WORK OF ITS TIME
ON THE SUBJECT OF AUTOMATA.
IT DESCRIBES A HUNDRED INVENTIONS.
SOME ARE THE WORK OF ANCIENT GREEK ENGINEERS,
OTHERS HAD BEEN CREATED BY THE BROTHERS THEMSELVES.
AND THEN THEY DID SOMETHING EXTRAORDINARY,
SOMETHING THAT SHONE A LIGHT FAR INTO THE FUTURE.
THERE ALREADY EXISTED MACHINES THAT COULD PLAY TUNES,
BUT THE BROTHERS WONDERED HOW A MACHINE MIGHT BE MADE
THAT COULD LEARN A NEW TUNE AND REPEAT IT.
THEY DESCRIBE THE MACHINE THEY MADE IN A TREATISE
CALLED "THE INSTRUMENT THAT PLAYS BY ITSELF."
IT WAS A DESCRIPTION AND DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS
AS TO HOW IT WAS MADE.
ONE MAN WENT LOOKING FOR THE MANUSCRIPT.
HE DECIDED TO REMAKE THE MACHINE,
TO PRESERVE THE MEMORY AND THE ACHIEVEMENT
OF THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS.
TODAY, THE MACHINE IS KEPT HERE,
AT THE ZKM CENTER FOR ART AND MEDIA IN GERMANY.
SO, THIS IS IT? MAN: YEP.
THAT'S A BANU MUSA MACHINE.
SO HOW CONFIDENT ARE YOU
THAT THE MACHINE THAT YOU'VE BUILT IS
AN ACCURATE DEPICTION OF WHAT THEY HAD PRODUCED?
YEAH, I'M PRETTY CONFIDENT
THAT THEY EXPLAINED EVERY DETAIL
INTO WHY THE DETAIL SHOULD BE LIKE THAT
AND THE PRECISE MEASUREMENT, ALSO.
AL-KHALILI: ESSENTIALLY, WHAT THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS
HAVE DONE IS BUILD TWO SEPARATE MACHINES.
ONE RECORDS THE MUSIC,
AND THEN THAT GETS TRANSFERRED TO THE SECOND MACHINE,
WHICH ACTUALLY PLAYS IT BACK AGAIN.
AL-KHALILI: OK, LIANG, TALK ME THROUGH HOW
THIS PART OF THE MACHINE RECORDS THE SOUND.
OK, COULD YOU START IT BY PRESSING THE PRETTY LITTLE BUTTON?
AH, OK, SO THAT GETS THE DRUM MOVING,
AND OF COURSE, WE'RE USING AN ELECTRIC MOTOR HERE.
YES. THEY'D HAVE USED WATER PRESSURE.
EXACTLY. RIGHT.
OK, SO YOU'RE GOING TO PLAY THE FLUTE,
BUT YOU HAVE TO PUT YOUR FINGERS THROUGH
THOSE RINGS AT THE SAME TIME.
YES. OH, I SEE.
AS YOU PULL THEM DOWN,
YOU'RE ACTUALLY PULLING A LEVER,
WHICH IS ACTIVATING A PEN
THAT MAKES A MARKING ON THE BARREL? EXACTLY.
SO THE MARKINGS ON THE BARREL ARE
A RECORD OF THE NOTES THAT YOU'VE PLAYED
AND THE DURATION THAT YOU PLAYED THEM? YES.
IT'S THE RECORD OF MY FINGER MOVEMENTS. OK.
[PLAYING A TUNE]
[PLAYS AN OFF-KEY NOTE]
HEH!
THAT'S PROBABLY AS MUCH AS WE WANT, REALLY, ISN'T IT?
[BOTH LAUGH]
AND SO, ONCE YOU HAVE THE MARKINGS ON THE DRUM...
YES. IT'S THEN TRANSFERRED
ACROSS TO THE SECOND MACHINE.
ZHIPENG: YES, IT'S A PLAYER HERE, SO NOW WE HAVE
ALL OF THE INFORMATION FROM MY FINGER MOVEMENTS HERE.
WE CARVE SOME GROOVES ACCORDING TO THE MARKS WE HAVE.
SO WHEN THIS DRUM TURNS, THE GROOVES ARE NOW
GOING TO LIFT THESE LEVERS
AND PLAY THE SAME TUNE ON THIS SECOND FLUTE?
EXACTLY. SO LET'S LISTEN.
OK.
[NOTES PLAYING]
SO THOSE GROOVES, THE MARKINGS, ARE ESSENTIALLY
THE VERY FIRST COMPUTER PROGRAM.
MM-HMM. LOOKS LIKE A HARD DRIVE, AND IT IS A HARD DRIVE.
[PLAYING NOTES]
AL-KHALILI: NOW, THIS MAY NOT SEEM LIKE A WORLD-CHANGING IDEA,
BUT IF YOU THINK ABOUT IT,
THIS REALLY IS A PROGRAMMABLE MACHINE.
AND ALL THIS OVER A THOUSAND YEARS
BEFORE MODERN COMPUTERS WERE BUILT.
IT ALSO SEEMS THAT THE BANU MUSA BROTHERS HAD
THIS GREAT SENSE OF THEATRE AND FUN BECAUSE IN THEIR BOOK,
THEY TALK ABOUT HIDING THE WHOLE CONTRAPTION
INSIDE A MANNEQUIN, WHERE THE LEVERS ARE DISGUISED
AS ITS FINGERS, AND THE FLUTE IS ATTACHED
TO ITS MOUTH, WHERE THE AIR COMES IN.
AND SO YOU CAN IMAGINE WHAT A SPECTACLE
THIS WOULD HAVE BEEN, HAVING THIS ROBOT PLAYING
THE MUSIC IN THE CALIPH'S PALACE.
[NOTES PLAYING]
NARRATOR: MACHINES THAT MIMIC HUMAN ACTIONS
HAVE FASCINATED US FOR GENERATIONS.
AND AFTER NEARLY 900 YEARS OF EFFORT, THEY PERHAPS
REACHED THEIR PINNACLE WITH THIS,
THE WRITER.
MADE IN SWITZERLAND IN THE 1770s,
IT HAS 6,000 MOVING PARTS.
THIS REMARKABLE AUTOMATON
CAN WRITE SEQUENCES OF TEXT UP TO 40 CHARACTERS IN LENGTH.
THE TEXT WAS PROGRAMMED USING METAL PLATES, INSTALLED
IN THE CLOCKWORK MECHANISM IN THE MACHINE'S BACK.
THE WRITER WAS EVEN ABLE TO DIP HIS QUILL IN INK
AND GIVE IT A DELICATE SHAKE TO REMOVE THE EXCESS.
BUT AUTOMATA ARE NOT QUITE ROBOTS.
THEY CAN'T LEARN AND CHANGE THEIR OWN BEHAVIOR.
♪
A TRUE ROBOT NEEDS TO BE ABLE TO PROCESS INFORMATION
SO IT CAN TAKE ACTIONS OF ITS OWN.
IT NEEDS TO BE A MACHINE THAT CAN THINK.
[SURF CRASHING]
AND IT WOULD TAKE A CRISIS IN NAUTICAL NAVIGATION
AND A MOST UNLIKELY FRIENDSHIP--
BETWEEN THE DAUGHTER OF ENGLAND'S MOST NOTORIOUS POET
AND A PROFESSOR MORE THAN TWICE HER AGE...
TO SET THE COGS OF A THINKING MACHINE IN MOTION.
WOMAN: THERE'S SOMETHING REALLY WONDERFUL TO ME
IN THE STORY OF THESE TWO VERY, VERY DIFFERENT PEOPLE--
THE MATHEMATICS PROFESSOR WHO'S QUITE CRANKY
AND SERIOUS AND LOGICAL,
AND THEN THERE'S THIS YOUNG SOCIETY GIRL.
THEY WERE SO ALIKE IN MANY WAYS,
BUT THEY WERE SO DIFFERENT IN OTHER WAYS, AND IT
CREATED THIS WONDERFUL MOMENT OF NEWNESS,
IMAGINATION, AND INVENTION.
NARRATOR: IT BEGAN IN THE EARLY 19th CENTURY...
WHEN THE BRITISH NAVY WAS THE LARGEST IN THE WORLD.
SHIPS NAVIGATED BY THE STARS.
TO SAVE SAILORS FROM PERFORMING COMPLICATED CALCULATIONS AT SEA,
THEY USED TABLES TO LOOK UP THE ANSWER THEY NEEDED,
BUT THE PROBLEM WAS THE TABLES OFTEN CONTAINED MISTAKES.
AFTER ALL, THEY WERE COMPILED BY HUMANS.
IF THE TABLES WERE WRONG,
IT WOULD THROW OFF THE NAVIGATION
WITH DEVASTATING RESULTS.
[CRASH]
[CLOCK TICKING]
[CHIMING]
NARRATOR: ENTER CHARLES BABBAGE.
THE SON OF A BANKER, WHO LOVED AUTOMATA AS A CHILD,
BABBAGE STUDIED MATHEMATICS AT CAMBRIDGE.
IN THE 1820s, HE WAS EMPLOYED
CHECKING ASTRONOMICAL LOG TABLES FOR SHIP NAVIGATION.
IT WAS DULL WORK, AND HE WAS FRUSTRATED
BY THE NUMBER OF MISTAKES HE WAS FINDING.
HE EXCLAIMED TO A FRIEND, JOHN HERSCHEL...
WISH TO GOD THESE NUMBERS COULD BE COMPUTED BY STEAM.
NARRATOR: HERSCHEL REPLIES, DRILY...
IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE.
[CLOCK CONTINUES CHIMING]
PADUA: WITH HERSCHEL'S WORDS FRESH IN HIS EARS,
BABBAGE BEGINS TO DESIGN A MACHINE.
HE CALLS IT A DIFFERENCE ENGINE,
ESSENTIALLY A MECHANICAL ADDING MACHINE
POWERED BY A HAND CRANK THAT COULD CALCULATE LOG TABLES.
IT'S A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA,
LITERALLY THE MECHANIZATION OF THOUGHT.
NARRATOR: IF THE CALCULATION COULD BE BROKEN DOWN
INTO A SERIES OF SIMPLE STEPS,
EACH OF WHICH COULD BE DONE BY MACHINE,
THEN HUMAN ERROR COULD BE ERADICATED,
AND LIVES COULD BE SAVED.
BABBAGE GOT FUNDING FROM THE GOVERNMENT--
£17,000--WORTH MORE
THAN $5 MILLION DOLLARS TODAY.
HE HIRED ONE OF THE FINEST ENGINEERS IN ENGLAND
TO HELP HIM,
BUT THE TWO MEN HAD A FALLING OUT
AFTER JUST A FRACTION OF THE MACHINE WAS BUILT.
THAT SECTION IS STILL PRESERVED IN LONDON'S SCIENCE MUSEUM.
PADUA: IT'S AT THE VERY, VERY CUTTING EDGE
OF VICTORIAN ENGINEERING.
UNFORTUNATELY, HE RAN OUT OF MONEY
BEFORE HE COULD EVER FINISH IT, BUT HE DID FINISH
THIS BEAUTIFUL PROTOTYPE, WHICH DOES ACTUALLY WORK.
IT CAN ADD NUMBERS AND RUN VERY BEAUTIFULLY,
BUT THE ACTUAL MACHINE WAS NEVER FINISHED.
NARRATOR: HOWEVER, USING BABBAGE'S PLANS...
IN 2002, THE SCIENCE MUSEUM
ACTUALLY BUILT THE ENTIRE MACHINE.
BY CRANKING A HANDLE, THE ROWS OF NUMBERS MOVE,
CARRYING THE TENS IN THE CALCULATION AS THEY GO.
THIS IS A MACHINE SOLVING A PROBLEM,
THE FORERUNNER OF THE DEVICE
THAT WOULD GIVE THE ROBOT ITS BRAIN.
AT THE FAR END, A PRINTER PUNCHES OUT THE ANSWER.
PADUA: I JUST LOVE TO SEE THAT MACHINE WORKING.
IT'S SO BEAUTIFUL.
EVERY SINGLE PART OF IT WORKS
IN HARMONY WITH THE WHOLE REST OF THE MACHINE.
I COULD WATCH THAT THING ALL DAY.
AND YOU THINK ABOUT WHAT EACH LITTLE PART IS DOING
AND HOW THEY'RE ALL WORKING TOGETHER.
I THINK HE JUST REALLY, REALLY LOVED THE DANCE OF THE MACHINERY.
FAST-FORWARD TO JUNE 1833, AND CHARLES BABBAGE IS NOW
A CAMBRIDGE PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS
AND A MEMBER OF LONDON HIGH SOCIETY.
HE'S HOSTING ONE OF HIS FAMOUS PARTIES HERE
AT HIS HOUSE ON DORSET STREET.
[PIANO PLAYING]
NARRATOR: AMONG HIS FRIENDS AND ACQUAINTANCES WERE LUMINARIES
SUCH AS MICHAEL FARADAY, CHARLES DARWIN,
AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE SCIENTIFIC ELITE.
BUT THIS EVENING, IT WAS A CHANCE MEETING
WITH A YOUNG WOMAN THAT WOULD SPARK A BREAKTHROUGH
IN THE WORLD OF IDEAS.
PADUA: THE WOMAN'S NAME WAS ADA BYRON.
HER FATHER WAS THE FAMOUS ROMANTIC POET, LORD BYRON.
HE HAD MARRIED ADA'S MOTHER, BUT THEN FLED
WHEN SHE WAS ONLY ONE MONTH OLD.
NARRATOR: LORD BYRON WAS FAMOUSLY DESCRIBED
AS "MAD, BAD, AND DANGEROUS TO KNOW,"
BUT ADA'S MOTHER WAS DETERMINED TO STOP HER DAUGHTER
FROM BEING "CREATIVE" LIKE HER FATHER.
INSTEAD OF ENGLISH, SHE MADE SURE THAT ADA WAS TUTORED
IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS FROM AN EARLY AGE.
ADA SOON TURNED OUT TO BE A PRODIGY.
PADUA: AGED JUST 17 WHEN SHE ATTENDED BABBAGE'S PARTY,
ADA SAW BABBAGE DEMONSTRATE THE SMALL PART
OF THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE THAT HE HAD MANAGED TO BUILD.
NARRATOR: LOOKING AT THE COMPLICATED MACHINERY,
ADA WAS CAPTIVATED, AND A FRIEND LATER RECALLED...
MAN: "WHILE THE OTHER VISITORS GAZED AT THE WORKINGS
"OF THIS BEAUTIFUL INSTRUMENT WITH THE SORT OF EXPRESSION
"AND FEELING THAT SOME SAVAGES ARE SAID TO HAVE SHOWN
ON FIRST SEEING A LOOKING GLASS..."
"MISS BYRON, YOUNG AS SHE WAS,
"UNDERSTOOD ITS WORKINGS
AND SAW THE GREAT BEAUTY OF THE INVENTION."
NARRATOR: ADA AND CHARLES BABBAGE
STRUCK UP A LIFELONG FRIENDSHIP.
THEY BEGAN TO CORRESPOND REGULARLY,
BUT SOON ADA'S LIFE MOVED ON.
PADUA: IN 1835, ADA MARRIED A MAN CALLED WILLIAM KING.
HE BROUGHT HER HERE TO THE HOME HE BUILT FOR HER,
HORSLEY MANOR, AND SHE BECAME THE COUNTESS OF LOVELACE.
NARRATOR: ADA GAVE BIRTH TO 3 CHILDREN
IN QUICK SUCCESSION, BUT ALL THE WHILE,
SHE CONTINUED HER STUDY OF MATHEMATICS.
PADUA: I THINK, FOR HER, THIS ROLE OF COUNTESS
WITH A BIG COUNTRY ESTATE WAS A BIT OF A CAGE,
SO IT DIDN'T REALLY SUIT HER PERSONALITY.
SHE WAS A VERY BOLD, INDEPENDENT PERSON IN A ROLE
THAT THAT WAS QUITE TRICKY.
CHARLES BABBAGE, IN THE MEANTIME,
WAS DREAMING UP A NEW MACHINE, A MORE SOPHISTICATED VERSION
OF THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE HE CALLED THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE.
NARRATOR: 45 FEET LONG AND 15 FEET HIGH,
BABBAGE IMAGINED THE ENGINE WOULD BE POWERED BY STEAM.
IT WAS CONCEIVED TO SOLVE A RANGE OF MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS.
BABBAGE HAD DESIGNED A REMARKABLE MACHINE,
BUT HE WAS NOT THE ONE WHO REALIZED ITS TRUE POTENTIAL.
THAT INSIGHT LAY WITH ADA LOVELACE.
NARRATOR: IN 1842, ADA WAS ASKED
TO TRANSLATE AN ARTICLE WRITTEN BY AN ITALIAN PROFESSOR
DESCRIBING BABBAGE'S ANALYTICAL ENGINE.
AT THE END OF THE TRANSLATION, SHE ADDED HER OWN APPENDICES.
HER WORK WAS PUBLISHED IN A BOOK CALLED
"TAYLOR'S SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS."
PADUA: ADA REALIZED THAT THE MACHINE COULD OPERATE ON THINGS
OTHER THAN NUMBERS IF THEY OBEYED LOGICAL RULES,
SO, FOR EXAMPLE, MUSIC.
SHE WRITES HERE THAT "THE ENGINE MIGHT COMPOSE
"ELABORATE AND SCIENTIFIC PIECES OF MUSIC
OF ANY DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY OR EXTENT."
SHE ALSO IMAGINED HOW THE MACHINE WOULD WEAVE
ALGEBRAICAL PATTERNS, JUST AS THE JACQUARD LOOM WEAVES FLOWERS AND LEAVES.
NARRATOR: LOVELACE'S ANALYSIS SHOWED
THAT THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE COULD BE APPLIED
TO ANY NUMBER OF TASKS.
IT WOULD BE THE BEGINNINGS OF A SYNTHETIC MIND.
ADA LOVELACE REALIZED THAT WHAT BABBAGE HAD DESIGNED IS
WHAT MANY CONSIDER THE WORLD'S FIRST UNIVERSAL COMPUTER.
AND THIS IS A TABLE THAT'S OFTEN DESCRIBED
AS THE FIRST-EVER COMPUTER PROGRAM.
IN THE DESIGN OF THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE,
ADA LOVELACE HAD SEEN THE FUTURE.
SHE BELIEVED THAT MACHINES WOULD BE ABLE TO DO ANYTHING,
EXCEPT COME UP WITH ORIGINAL THOUGHTS.
NARRATOR: BUT IN 1852,
ADA DIED YOUNG AT THE AGE OF 36.
HER OBSERVATIONS, WRITTEN AS AN APPENDIX TO A BOOK
ABOUT A THINKING MACHINE THAT WAS NEVER ACTUALLY BUILT,
UNDERSTANDABLY FELL INTO OBSCURITY.
AND THE IDEA OF PUTTING SUCH A MACHINE INTO A MECHANICAL BODY
WAS UNHEARD OF; AFTER ALL, AT THE TIME,
THE WORD "ROBOT" DID NOT EVEN EXIST.
BUT THAT WOULD CHANGE, DUE TO A YOUNG CUBIST PAINTER
WORKING IN PRAGUE IN 1920.
♪
JOSEF CAPEK WAS AT HIS EASEL WHEN HIS BROTHER KAREL,
WHO WAS A PLAYWRIGHT, RUSHED UP TO HIM
WITH AN IDEA FOR A NEW PLAY.
IT WAS ABOUT A BREED OF SYNTHETIC MEN
WHO RISE UP AGAINST THEIR HUMAN OVERLORDS.
THE TROUBLE WAS, HE COULDN'T THINK OF WHAT TO CALL THEM.
JOSEF PAUSED FOR A MOMENT AND REMEMBERED
AN OLD SLAVIC WORD FOR FORCED LABOR,
PRONOUNCED "ROBOTA."
"CALL THEM ROBOTS," HE SAID.
THE PLAY WAS CALLED "ROSSUM'S UNIVERSAL ROBOTS"...
AND IT WAS A GREAT SUCCESS,
PUTTING THE WORD "ROBOT"
INTO LANGUAGES ALL OVER THE WORLD.
FIRE!
NARRATOR: WITHIN A DECADE, THE CONCEPT OF THE ROBOT AS
AN ARTIFICIAL, INTERACTIVE, SELF-DETERMINED MACHINE
TOOK ROOT IN POPULAR CULTURE.
[BARKING]
NARRATOR: BUT HOW COULD SUCH A MACHINE ACTUALLY BE BUILT?
MAKING A METAL HUMAN MOVE WAS ONE THING,
BUT HOW TO GET IT TO MAKE SENSE OF ITS SURROUNDINGS,
TO PERFORM USEFUL ACTIONS--
THAT SEEMED IMPOSSIBLE UNTIL,
IN 1935, A YOUNG MAN WENT FOR A JOG.
MEIGS: AS A TECH REPORTER, THIS NEXT REVOLUTION
REALLY FASCINATES ME BECAUSE IT UNDERPINS SO MUCH
OF THE TECHNOLOGY THAT IS SHAPING THE 21st CENTURY.
NARRATOR: IN THE EARLY SUMMER, A SKILLED ATHLETE
AND MATHEMATICIAN WAS RUNNING ALONG THE BANKS
OF THE RIVER CAM NEAR CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND.
MEIGS: OCCUPYING HIS THOUGHTS WAS A CHALLENGE THAT WAS TAXING
SOME OF THE BRIGHTEST MINDS OF HIS DAY--
ONE OF THE LAST GREAT PROBLEMS OF MATHEMATICS.
NARRATOR: THE RUNNER'S NAME WAS ALAN TURING,
AT THE TIME A FELLOW AT CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.
THE PROBLEM HE WAS WONDERING ABOUT CONCERNED
THE LIMITS OF MATHEMATICS ITSELF.
RESTING HERE BY THE RIVER NEAR GRANTCHESTER, TURING HAD
AN IDEA THAT DIDN'T JUST SOLVE HIS MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM,
BUT IT WOULD CHANGE THE WORLD OF TECHNOLOGY FOREVER.
NARRATOR: HE IMAGINED A MACHINE
THAT CARRIED A PROGRAM IN ITS MEMORY,
A DEVICE THAT COULD SOLVE ANY PROBLEM
THAT COULD BE DESCRIBED MATHEMATICALLY.
THE IDEA BECAME KNOWN AS
A UNIVERSAL TURING MACHINE,
OR UNIVERSAL COMPUTER.
MEIGS: TURING WROTE UP HIS BIG IDEA IN A PAPER
PUBLISHED IN 1936 AND KICKED OFF A REVOLUTION.
HE WASN'T JUST SOLVING A PARTICULAR MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM,
HE WAS INVENTING A COMPUTER LANGUAGE THAT COULD BE APPLIED
TO A WHOLE UNIVERSE OF PROBLEMS.
[BIRDS CHIRPING]
NARRATOR: TURING REALIZED HIS THEORETICAL MACHINE
WOULD BE LIKE AN ARTIFICIAL BRAIN,
ABLE TO SOLVE ANY PROBLEM
THAT WAS DEFINED BY REASON AND LOGIC.
MEIGS: TURING'S NEXT QUESTION WAS WHETHER SUCH A MACHINE
COULD BE PHYSICALLY CONSTRUCTED.
BUT BEFORE HE COULD GET STARTED ON THE PROBLEM,
WORLD WAR II INTERVENED.
BRITAIN'S VERY SURVIVAL WAS UNDER THREAT FROM NAZI GERMANY.
[NEWSREEL ANNOUNCER SPEAKING INDISTINCTLY]
NARRATOR: TURING'S GENIUS WAS TURNED TO CODE-BREAKING--
TRYING TO CRACK THE ENCRYPTED MESSAGES
THAT THE NAZIS USED TO COMMUNICATE.
IT WAS VITAL WORK.
BUT ALL DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR, TURING KEPT THINKING
ABOUT THE POSSIBILITIES OF A COMPUTING MACHINE.
COULD IT PLAY CHESS? COULD IT MAKE MUSIC?
COULD IT PREDICT THE WEATHER?
HIS IDEAS WERE ALREADY HELPING TURN THE TIDE OF WAR;
MAYBE THEY COULD TRANSFORM OTHER AREAS OF LIFE AS WELL.
NARRATOR: BY THE END OF WORLD WAR II,
SCIENTISTS WERE SCRAMBLING TO BE THE FIRST TO BUILD THE MACHINE.
ONE OF THE EARLIEST WAS BUILT IN 1948,
HERE IN MANCHESTER.
AT THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY IS
A WORKING REPLICA OF THAT REVOLUTIONARY MACHINE...
CALLED, WITHOUT IRONY, THE BABY.
AS BABIES GO, HOWEVER, IT WAS A BIG ONE.
17 FEET LONG AND OVER 7 FEET TALL, IT WEIGHED ONE TON.
IT RAN ON 550 VACUUM TUBES.
MOST IMPORTANTLY,
IT HAD A MEMORY CAPABLE OF STORING INSTRUCTIONS.
IT WAS ABLE TO HOLD NOT JUST THE DATA TO BE COMPUTED,
BUT ALSO THE PROGRAM ITSELF.
MEIGS: CHRIS BURTON, WHO SUPERVISED THE RECONSTRUCTION
OF THE MANCHESTER BABY COMPUTER, IS SHOWING ME HOW
THE ORIGINAL PROGRAM WOULD BE INSERTED INTO THE SYSTEM.
IN ORDER TO SOLVE THEIR PROBLEM, THE PROGRAMMERS WOULD HAVE TO
FIRST WRITE OUT THE CODE IN BINARY FORM ON A PIECE OF PAPER
AND THEN ENTER IT INTO THE MEMORY.
SO, AS CHRIS FLIPS THESE SWITCHES, HE'S PICKING
DIFFERENT LINES OF MEMORY, AND THEN THESE RED BUTTONS
ACTUALLY ENTER THE BINARY CODE.
NARRATOR: THE DATA WAS STORED NOT ON WOODEN WHEELS
OR METAL COGS, BUT ON THE SURFACE OF A TELEVISION TUBE
AS A SERIES OF DOTS AND DASHES, AND THEN DISPLAYED
ON A SIMILAR TUBE IN FRONT OF THE OPERATOR.
MEIGS: CHRIS HAS ENTERED ONE OF THE EARLY PROGRAMS
THEY USED TO DEMONSTRATE THE MACHINE'S CAPABILITIES.
AND WHAT IS THE NUMBER THAT WE HAVE ENTERED?
WELL, THIS NUMBER WE PUT IN IS 999,
AND WE WANT TO FIND THE LARGEST NUMBER THAT DIVIDES THAT
EXACTLY, AND WE CAN READ OFF THE ANSWER OFF THE SCREEN.
SO CAN WE RUN IT? YES, INDEED.
BURTON: SO IF YOU START THE PROGRAM RUNNING BY PUSHING THAT FROM STOP TO RUN.
PRESS IT DOWN.
OK,
I'M GOING TO GIVE IT A GO.
BURTON: NOW WE CAN SEE THE PROGRAM RUNNING
BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE DOTS ON THE SCREEN,
AND EVENTUALLY IT WILL FIND THE ANSWER
AND WARN US WITH A LIGHT AND A HOOTER.
MEIGS: NOW, WHAT'S KEY HERE IS THAT THE COMPUTER
IS STORING YOUR INPUT. THAT WAS REALLY--
THE KEY WAS THERE'S A MEMORY WITH
A MEMORY TO REMEMBER THE PROGRAM.
♪
AND IT'S RANDOM ACCESS...
INDEED. WHICH MEANS THEY CAN GET DIFFERENT PARTS
OF THE PROGRAM AS NEEDED.
THERE WERE NO PUNCH CARDS, THERE'S NO TAPE.
EVERYTHING'S AVAILABLE FOR THE COMPUTER
TO RUN AS FAST AS POSSIBLE.
AT ELECTRONIC SPEEDS.
MICRO-SECOND SPEEDS. THAT'S CRITICAL.
SO THIS WAS REALLY THE DAWN OF THE MODERN COMPUTER?
VERY MUCH SO.
I WOULD SAY THAT YOU CAN'T GO
TO ANY EARLIER MACHINE THAN THIS
THAT HAD THE RIGHT CHARACTERISTICS.
[CHIME]
THE MACHINE'S STOPPED,
AND THERE IS THE ANSWER ON THAT LINE THERE--
110101.
OK, BUT I DON'T READ BINARY CODE.
YOU HAVE TO KNOW THAT THAT MEANS 43.
[CHUCKLING] OK.
SO IT SOLVED THE PROBLEM.
THE HIGHEST FACTOR OF 989 IS 43.
EXACTLY.
WHAT WE HAVE HERE IN THIS BABY COMPUTER IS
A REAL REVOLUTION IN TECHNOLOGY.
THIS IS TURING'S DREAM OF A UNIVERSAL COMPUTER
NOW COME TO LIFE AND PROVED TO WORK IN THE REAL WORLD.
NARRATOR: THE "BABY" FOLLOWED A FIXED PROGRAM,
BUT UNLIKE AN AUTOMATON, IT PROVED
THAT A MACHINE COULD SOLVE COMPLEX PROBLEMS.
IT RAISED AN EXTRAORDINARY POSSIBILITY,
ONE THAT TURING COULD CLEARLY SEE...
A TECHNOLOGY THAT WOULD CHANGE THE WORLD--
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
IN 1951, TURING DID A RADIO BROADCAST
TITLED "CAN DIGITAL COMPUTERS THINK?"
THIS IS A COPY OF HIS ORIGINAL ANNOTATED SCRIPT,
FROM THE TURING ARCHIVE AT CAMBRIDGE, AND IT'S FASCINATING.
IN THE BROADCAST,
TURING REFERENCED ADA LOVELACE, WHO SAID
THAT A COMPUTER SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO WHATEVER WE PROGRAM IT TO PERFORM.
MEIGS: SHE ALSO SAID, "IT HAS NO PRETENTIONS
WHATSOEVER TO ORIGINATE ANYTHING."
WELL, HE DISAGREED. HE WONDERED,
WHAT IF A COMPUTER COULD HAVE AN ORIGINAL IDEA?
WHAT IF A COMPUTER COULD SURPRISE US?
DIGITAL COMPUTERS HAVE OFTEN BEEN DESCRIBED
AS MECHANICAL BRAINS.
MOST SCIENTISTS PROBABLY REGARD THIS DESCRIPTION AS...
TURING THOUGHT YOU COULD SET UP A TEST.
HE CALLED IT "THE IMITATION GAME."
IT IS PROBABLE, FOR INSTANCE, THAT AT THE END OF THE CENTURY,
IT WILL BE POSSIBLE TO PROGRAM A MACHINE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS IN...
MEIGS: THE IDEA WAS THAT YOU COULD PROGRAM A COMPUTER
TO HAVE A CONVERSATION WITH A HUMAN BEING.
AND WHAT IF THE COMPUTER COULD CONVINCE THE HUMAN THAT IT, TOO, WAS HUMAN?
WOULDN'T THAT ABILITY TO DECEIVE CONSTITUTE INTELLIGENCE?
...IT WILL BE EXTREMELY DIFFICULT
TO GUESS WHETHER THE ANSWERS ARE BEING
GIVEN BY A MAN OR BY A MACHINE.
MEIGS: TURING TURNED THE DEFINITION
OF INTELLIGENCE UPSIDE DOWN.
INSTEAD OF WORRYING ABOUT WHAT MYSTERIOUS THINGS
WERE HAPPENING INSIDE THE HUMAN BRAIN,
HE FOCUSED ON THE RESULTS IN THE REAL WORLD.
IF SOMETHING DISPLAYED THE QUALITIES WE THINK OF
AS "INTELLIGENCE," THEN YOU'D HAVE TO CALL IT INTELLIGENT.
IT DIDN'T REALLY MATTER WHETHER IT CAME FROM BRAIN CELLS
OR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS.
IF ANY MACHINE CAN APPROPRIATELY BE DESCRIBED AS A BRAIN,
THEN ANY DIGITAL COMPUTER CAN BE SO DESCRIBED.
MEIGS: TURING'S IMITATION GAME
SOON BECAME KNOWN AS THE "TURING TEST" AND WOULD BE
A KEY BENCHMARK IN THE SEARCH FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
BUT IN THE EARLY 1950s, IT WAS A REVOLUTIONARY CONCEPT.
...SUCH A PROGRAM WILL BE FOUND...
MEIGS: PEOPLE WERE STILL JUST LEARNING THE BASICS OF WORKING WITH COMPUTERS,
AND TURING WAS ALREADY DREAMING OF INTELLIGENT MACHINES.
THE WHOLE THINKING PROCESS IS STILL RATHER MYSTERIOUS TO ME,
BUT I BELIEVE THAT THE ATTEMPT TO MAKE A THINKING MACHINE
WILL HELP US GREATLY IN FINDING OUT HOW WE THINK OURSELVES.
NARRATOR: ALAN TURING SEEMED SET TO CHANGE THE WORLD,
BUT IN 1954,
HE WAS FOUND POISONED IN HIS BED.
THE OFFICIAL VERDICT WAS SUICIDE.
TURING'S LEGACY RAISED THE POSSIBILITY
OF COMPLEX COMPUTERS INSIDE ROBOTS,
IMITATING LIFE.
BUT OTHERS WONDERED IF THE SAME RESULT COULD BE ACHIEVED
WITH A VERY DIFFERENT APPROACH.
WHAT WAS THE SIMPLEST MACHINE
THAT COULD IMITATE ANIMAL BEHAVIOR?
THE IDEA WAS INSPIRED BY A CHANCE CONVERSATION
IN A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL.
AS AN ELECTRONICS ENGINEER, ONE OF THE THINGS THAT I FIND
FASCINATING ABOUT THE NEXT STEP IN THE STORY OF ROBOTS
IS THAT IT WAS INSPIRED BY THE WORLD OF BIOLOGY,
RATHER THAN MATHEMATICS OR ENGINEERING.
THE MAN BEHIND IT WAS A NEUROPHYSIOLOGIST
CALLED WILLIAM GREY WALTER.
NARRATOR: BORN IN KANSAS CITY IN 1910,
GREY WALTER PIONEERED DEVELOPMENTS IN MACHINES
THAT RECORD ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY IN THE BRAIN.
IN 1939, GREY WALTER BEGAN WORKING IN BRISTOL
AT THE BURDEN NEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE--
A PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL-- WHERE HE CONTINUED HIS RESEARCH
INTO THE MYSTERIES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN.
NARRATOR: IN A CHANCE CONVERSATION
WITH A PSYCHOLOGIST, WALTER HIT ON AN IDEA--
ALTHOUGH OUR BRAINS ARE HIGHLY COMPLEX,
COULD SIMPLER BIOLOGICAL CREATURES OWE THEIR ABILITIES
TO THE WAY THAT THEY ARE WIRED TOGETHER,
USING VERY FEW CONNECTIONS?
HOW SIMPLE A SYSTEM, HE WONDERED,
COULD GENERATE WHAT WE WOULD CALL "BEHAVIOR"?
NOW HE WONDERED IF HE COULD REPLICATE THAT CONCEPT IN A MACHINE.
COULD HE BUILD A KIND OF ELECTRICAL CREATURE,
ONE THAT HAD VERY BASIC SENSES AND RESPONSES?
AND IF HE COULD, HOW WOULD IT BEHAVE?
WOULD IT BEHAVE LIKE A BIOLOGICAL ANIMAL?
NARRATOR: HERE AT BRISTOL ROBOTICS LABORATORY,
PROFESSOR OWEN HOLLAND HAS MADE A MODERN-DAY REPLICA
OF GREY WALTER'S LANDMARK CREATION, WHICH HE CALLED
THE TORTOISE BECAUSE, AT LEAST IN PART, IT TAUGHT US.
OWEN, HI.
HI. I'M DANIELLE.
OH, HI, DANIELLE.
LOVELY TO MEET YOU. SO THIS IS ONE OF THEM.
MEET THE TORTOISE, YES.
MARVELOUS.
OK, SO SHOW ME HOW IT WORKS.
IF I PUT THE SHELL ON, THEN YOU WILL BE ABLE
TO SEE HOW IT WORKS, SO...
OK.
NARRATOR: THE TORTOISE HAS ONLY TWO SENSES.
THE FIRST IS SIMPLY A SWITCH.
HOLLAND: WHEN IT HITS ANYTHING, IT OPERATES A SWITCH, THEN IT WILL
ALTERNATELY TRY AND GO IN ONE DIRECTION,
TURN, GO IN ANOTHER DIRECTION, TURN,
AND EVENTUALLY IT WILL ESCAPE FROM IT.
NARRATOR: THE SECOND SENSE IS A LIGHT DETECTOR ON TOP,
WHICH SCANS THE ENVIRONMENT, LOOKING FOR A LIGHT SOURCE.
IF IT FINDS ONE, A VERY SIMPLE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
DRIVES THE ROBOT TOWARDS IT.
GEORGE: OK, SO WITH THAT ON, IF I SHONE A LIGHT
INTO THAT LIKE THAT, IT WOULD JUST FOLLOW ME, WOULD IT?
YEAH, IT WOULD FOLLOW THE--FOLLOW THE LIGHT.
OK. CAN I TRY IT? OF COURSE.
YES. HEH! GREAT.
OK, DANIELLE, IF I JUST PUT IT DOWN...
OK. OVER TO YOU.
MARVELOUS.
SHALL I SWITCH IT ON?
YEAH, YOU SWITCH IT ON, AND I'LL SWITCH ON MY LIGHT. BRILLIANT.
GEORGE: WITH TWO SENSES-- A LIGHT AND A TOUCH SENSOR,
THIS TORTOISE APPEARS TO MOVE WITH AUTONOMY...
WITH PURPOSE AND WITH SPONTANEITY.
THE THING THAT WAS UNEXPECTED FOR ME WAS
I WAS TRYING TO GUIDE IT TOWARDS THE LIGHT AND MAKE IT DO SOMETHING,
BUT IT LOOKED LIKE IT WAS ALMOST TRYING TO MAKE ITS OWN DECISIONS.
AND I THINK THIS IS WHAT GREY WALTER WANTED IT TO DO.
IT WANTED TO BEHAVE LIKE A CREATURE WHO DOESN'T
ALWAYS MAKE THE RIGHT DECISIONS FIRST TIME.
WILLIAM GREY WALTER'S WORK WAS TRULY REVOLUTIONARY,
DEVISING THE FIRST MACHINE THAT CAN REACT TO A STIMULUS
AND THEN TAKE ACTION IN RESPONSE, LIKE AN ANIMAL.
NARRATOR: TAKE GREY WALTER'S APPROACH OF A MACHINE
THAT RESPONDS TO ITS INPUT
AND COMBINE IT WITH TURING'S THEORY OF THE UNIVERSAL COMPUTER
AND YOU HAVE THE RECIPE FOR ROBOTIC MACHINES
THAT CAN PRACTICALLY THINK ON THEIR OWN.
THE RECIPE WOULD BE PUT TO THE ULTIMATE TEST
DECADES AFTER TURING AND WALTER'S BREAKTHROUGHS
WHEN, IN 2011, A ROBOT JOURNEYED TO MARS,
A PLACE SO DISTANT THAT THAT IT HAD TO BE ABLE
TO MAKE DECISIONS ITSELF-- TO BE AUTONOMOUS.
JENNIFER TROSPER: MARS AND EARTH ARE FAR AWAY
FROM EACH OTHER, AND THE TIME IT TAKES
A RADIO SIGNAL TO GET FROM EARTH TO MARS
CAN VARY FROM 10 T0 20 MINUTES ONE WAY,
SO WE CAN'T REMOTE-CONTROL THESE ROVERS.
WE ACTUALLY HAVE TO MAKE THEM VERY SMART.
NARRATOR: BY 2012, THE MARS ROVER CURIOSITY
WAS ABOUT TO ATTEMPT A DARING,
DO-OR-DIE LANDING ON THE RED PLANET.
TO DO SO, THE ROBOTIC MISSION HAD TO MANAGE ITS OWN FATE
WITHOUT DIRECT CONTROL FROM HOME.
TROSPER: LANDING ON MARS IS PRETTY TRICKY.
THE WAY THAT WE WILL RE-ENTER EARTH WITH THE SHUTTLE
OR SOMETHING IS WE'LL USE THE ATMOSPHERE TO SLOW US DOWN,
IT'LL HEAT UP THE TILES, AND THEN WE'LL USE
A PARACHUTE AT THE END.
WE CAN'T DO THAT ON MARS COMPLETELY
BECAUSE THE MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE WON'T SLOW US DOWN ENOUGH.
NARRATOR: MARS DOES HAVE AN ATMOSPHERE,
BUT IT IS ONLY 1% OF THE PRESSURE WE HAVE ON EARTH.
THE LANDER, AN ADVANCED DESCENDANT
OF GREY'S TORTOISE, HAD TO USE A SERIES
OF SOPHISTICATED SYSTEMS TO MONITOR ITS SITUATION
AND ACT ACCORDINGLY.
HURTLING TOWARDS MARS AT 13,000 MILES PER HOUR,
CURIOSITY HAD TO HIT THE ATMOSPHERE
AT PRECISELY THE RIGHT ANGLE.
TROSPER: SO WE DID USE THE THIN MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE TO SLOW US
DOWN WITH THE HEAT SHIELD AS MUCH AS IT CAN.
NARRATOR: AT ABOUT TWICE THE SPEED OF SOUND,
CURIOSITY HAD TO CHOOSE, BASED ON INPUT FROM ITS SENSORS,
WHEN TO OPEN A PARACHUTE:
TOO EARLY, AND THE CHUTE WOULD BE DESTROYED;
TOO LATE, AND IT WOULD NOT STOP THE LANDER IN TIME.
NOW, CURIOSITY DROPPED THE HEAT SHIELD...
AND WITH A CLEAR VIEW OF THE SURFACE,
THE ROBOT HAD TO USE RADAR
TO PRECISELY DETERMINE ITS ALTITUDE AND SPEED
BEFORE CUTTING ITSELF LOOSE FROM THE PARACHUTE.
AFTER A MOMENT OF FREE-FALL,
THE SYSTEM FIRED RETRO ROCKETS.
AS THOSE ROCKETS ARE FIRING, WE WANTED THE ROVER
TO BE FAR AWAY FROM THEM...
SO WE DROP THE ROVER DOWN ON CABLES.
IT ALSO USES THOSE ROCKETS
TO KIND OF DIRECT ITSELF TOWARDS THE LANDING SITE.
IT GENTLY SETS THE ROVER DOWN ON THE SURFACE.
THE DESCENT STAGE SEVERS THE CABLES...
AND THEN FLIES AWAY TO LAND SOMEWHERE ELSE.
IT WORKED PRETTY MUCH PERFECTLY, SO MUCH SO THAT IN 2018,
WE DID IT ALL OVER AGAIN WITH THE MARS INSIGHT LANDER.
THIS TIME, THE SEQUENCE WAS SLIGHTLY SIMPLER,
THE SPACE CRAFT LANDING UNDER ITS OWN POWER.
AND WE HOPED THAT MANY MORE ROBOTIC MISSIONS
WOULD FOLLOW CURIOSITY TO THE SURFACE OF THE RED PLANET.
WOMAN: TOUCHDOWN CONFIRMED.
[ALL CHEERING]
NARRATOR: CURIOSITY AND INSIGHT PROVED THE VALUE
OF AUTONOMOUS ROBOTICS IN SPACE,
EVEN IF IT WAS OF A LIMITED KIND.
AFTER ALL, THEY WERE FOLLOWING A PRE-PROGRAMMED SEQUENCE.
BUT HERE ON EARTH, EVEN LIMITED AUTONOMY
CAN BE VERY USEFUL, TOO.
BROOKS: I HAVE WORKED IN ROBOTICS MY WHOLE LIFE.
IN 1990, WE STARTED A COMPANY CALLED iROBOT,
AND WE WERE INTERESTED IN BUILDING ROBOTS
THAT COULD DO SOMETHING REAL IN THE WORLD.
FINALLY, IN 2002, WE CAME UP WITH TWO WINNERS.
ONE WAS THE ROOMBA, VACUUM-CLEANING ROBOT.
ANOTHER WAS THE PACKBOT...
WHICH WAS USED HEAVILY IN THE U.S. MILITARY FOR DEALING
WITH ROADSIDE BOMBS, IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES IN IRAQ AND AFGHANISTAN.
WE HAD THOUSANDS OF THEM-- THOUSANDS, LITERALLY--
IN IRAQ AND AFGHANISTAN OPERATING EVERY SINGLE DAY
FOR YEAR AFTER YEAR AFTER YEAR.
BROOKS: THE PACKBOT IS INTERESTING BECAUSE,
AT ONE LEVEL, IT'S CONTROLLED BY A HUMAN OVER A RADIO LINK,
TELLING IT TO GO AND DO THINGS.
BUT WHEN IT GETS OUT OF RADIO CONTACT, IT FIGURES OUT
ITS WAY BACK TO LOOK FOR WHERE IT LAST HAD RADIO CONTACT,
AND SO THERE'S LOTS OF LITTLE AUTONOMOUS BEHAVIORS.
PACKBOTS HAVE ALSO BEEN USED IN HOSTAGE SITUATIONS,
ACTIVE SHOOTER SITUATIONS, BUT WHAT I'M MOST PROUD OF
IS THAT, ABOUT A WEEK AFTER THE DISASTER IN FUKUSHIMA,
WHEN THEY STILL DIDN'T KNOW WHAT WAS GOING ON
IN THE NUCLEAR REACTORS, WE WERE ABLE TO GET A BUNCH OF PACKBOTS
THERE, AND THEY WERE ABLE TO GO WHERE THE RADIATION WAS
WAY TOO HIGH FOR HUMANS TO BE AND PUT A CAMERA
ON SOME OF THE ANALOG INSTRUMENTS.
YOU KNOW, NORMALLY A HUMAN WOULD GO IN, THERE WAS
NO DIGITAL CONNECTION, SO THE ROBOTS FORMED CHAINS OF
WI-FI HOTSPOTS THAT JUMPED THE DATA BACK
TO THE CONTROL CENTER.
AND THEY WERE THEN ABLE TO USE THAT INFORMATION
TO KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT WHAT WAS GOING ON,
AND IT WAS HELPFUL IN ACTIVELY SHUTTING DOWN THE REACTORS.
BROOKS: FOR THE LAST FEW YEARS, I'VE BEEN TRYING TO PUT ROBOTS
INTO FACTORIES AT A LARGE SCALE.
PEOPLE SAY, "YOU KNOW, ROBOTS HAVE TAKEN ALL
THE JOBS IN FACTORIES." THAT'S JUST NOT TRUE.
WORLDWIDE, THERE'S ABOUT TWO MILLION ROBOTS IN FACTORIES,
WHICH IS A TINY NUMBER COMPARED TO THE HUMAN WORKERS.
AND IN FACT, THERE'S A SEVERE SHORTAGE
OF PEOPLE WANTING TO WORK IN FACTORIES.
I ACTUALLY THINK THAT WE'RE GOING TO NEED
A LOT MORE ROBOTS THAN PEOPLE EXPECT.
NARRATOR: ONE OF THE GREAT CHALLENGES
OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS IS SAFETY.
CONVENTIONAL ROBOTS MOVE FROM POSITION TO POSITION,
ACCORDING TO THEIR PROGRAM--
A POTENTIAL HAZARD FOR ANY HUMAN IN THE WAY,
AND SO THEY ARE OFTEN PLACED IN PROTECTIVE ENCLOSURES.
THESE POSITION-CONTROLLED ROBOTS, AS THEY ARE CALLED,
HAVE BEEN IN USE FOR DECADES.
BUT A NEW GENERATION, AND A NEW REVOLUTION, IS TAKING SHAPE.
IT GOES ALL THE WAY BACK TO THE ORIGINAL DREAM
OF THE MECHANICAL HELPER FORGED BY THE GODS.
AT THE AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE IN GERMANY,
ENGINEERS ARE BUILDING A ROBOT THAT THEY HOPE
WILL SATISFY THAT ANCIENT DREAM.
MAN: THE WHOLE IDEA OF BUILDING A HUMANOID ROBOT IS TO PUT
THE MACHINE INTO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF A HUMAN.
OUR HUMANOID ROBOT IS CALLED TORO, WHICH IS AN ACRONYM
FOR TORQUE-CONTROLLED HUMANOID ROBOT.
TORO IS ONE OF THE ONLY HUMANOID ROBOTS IN THE WORLD THAT IS ABLE
TO EXPLICITLY CONTROL ITS TORQUES IN THE JOINTS,
SO THESE ARE THE ROTATIONAL FORCES IN THE JOINTS.
HERE WE SEE TORO STANDING ON A WHOLE PILE OF MATTRESSES,
AND IT'S KEEPING ITS BALANCE AUTOMATICALLY.
AS YOU CAN SEE, HERE IT'S STANDING FREELY.
THOSE STRAPS HERE ARE PURELY FOR TORO'S SAFETY,
SO IN CASE SOMETHING GOES WRONG WITH THE EXPERIMENT,
BUT THE STRAPS ARE NOT SUPPORTING ANY WEIGHT.
IN THE FUTURE, WE IMAGINE ROBOTS AND HUMANS
COOPERATING LITERALLY HAND IN HAND.
I CAN INTERACT WITH TORO, PUSHING HIM,
AND HE'S AUTOMATICALLY KEEPING HIS BALANCE.
TO SHOW YOU HOW WELL IT'S BEEN BALANCING,
WE'LL JUST TURN IT OFF.
SEE? IT FALLS. IT'S HELD IN THE SAFETY STRAPS.
NARRATOR: IN THIS EXPERIMENT,
TORO WILL ATTEMPT TO FIND A SMALL AIRPLANE COMPONENT
AND ATTACH IT TO THE CORRECT LOCATION
ON A MOCKUP OF AN AIRLINER FUSELAGE.
SO IT'S LOOKING FOR THE TABLE
WHERE THIS PART IS LOCATED ON.
IT'S DOING THAT FULLY AUTOMATICALLY.
SO HE LOCATES THE PART.
NARRATOR: THIS WOULD BE A SIMPLE TASK FOR A HUMAN,
BUT FOR A MACHINE, IT IS GOING TO TAKE SOME FIGURING OUT.
AT FIRST, TORO MAKES SEVERAL MISTAKES
WHILE IT LEARNS THE ROPES.
[CHUCKLES]
NARRATOR: BUT FINALLY, TORO IS READY TO SHOW US WHAT IT CAN DO.
ENGLSBERGER: GOOD JOB, TORO.
IN THE SCENARIO THAT WE TEST HERE,
TORO CANNOT STEP CLOSER TO THE AIRPLANE SHELL,
SO IT HAS TO GRAB ON THIS HANDLE HERE AND LEAN FORWARD.
THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT TASK FOR A ROBOT TO DO.
ENGLSBERGER: WELL DONE.
NARRATOR: TORO MIGHT SEEM SLOW AND PONDEROUS TODAY,
BUT SPEED UP THE ACTION BY 2 OR 3 TIMES,
AND THE FUTURE-- A FACTORY FULL OF HUMANS
AND HUMANOIDS WORKING TOGETHER--IS ALMOST VISIBLE,
EVEN IF THERE IS A LONG WAY TO GO.
BROOKS: DESPITE THE RECENT ADVANCES,
THE REAL CHALLENGE IS THESE THINGS.
THESE THINGS THAT WE HAVE ON THE END OF OUR ARMS
ARE AMAZING DEVICES, AND WE HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE
TO BUILD ROBOT HANDS, AFTER 40 SOLID YEARS OF TRYING,
WHICH COME TO EVEN 1% OF THE CAPABILITY OF A HUMAN HAND.
NARRATOR: GETTING SOPHISTICATED ROBOTS INTO OUR HOMES AND ABLE
TO DO USEFUL TASKS IS STILL FRAUGHT WITH DIFFICULTY.
THE NEW GENERATIONS OF ROBOTS THAT WE MAY WANT TO HAVE IN
OUR HOMES ARE GOING TO HAVE TO BE MUCH MORE AWARE
OF PEOPLE AND BE ABLE TO INTERACT WITH PEOPLE.
AND I THINK WE WILL DEMAND THAT THEY BE ABLE
TO UNDERSTAND SPEECH, BUT WE'LL ALSO EXPECT THEM TO KNOW WHERE
WE ARE AND NOT GET IN OUR WAY AND ANTICIPATE WHAT WE WANT THEM
TO DO, AND WE'LL WANT TO KNOW THAT WE CAN ANTICIPATE WHAT THEY'RE ABOUT TO DO.
IT'LL BE A WHOLE NEW LEVEL OF SOCIAL INTERACTION.
NARRATOR: BUT HERE IN ITALY,
A PROJECT CALLED iCUB
AIMS TO TACKLE THE PROBLEMS ONE BY ONE.
THE KEY IS IN HOW THE ROBOT LEARNS
ABOUT THE WORLD AROUND IT.
HEY, iCUB.
HELLO.
HAVE A LOOK AT THIS MUG.
LET ME HAVE A LOOK AT THE MUG.
MEIGS: iCUB AND I HAVE JUST MET,
SO I'M HELPING iCUB FIGURE OUT
WHAT THIS OBJECT LOOKS LIKE.
iCUB IS ACTUALLY TRACKING MY BODY.
THOSE LINES REPRESENT ITS INTERPRETATION OF MY SKELETON.
WHAT IT WANTS TO DO IS BE ABLE TO DISTINGUISH
ME AND MY BODY FROM THE OBJECT.
USUALLY TAKES ABOUT 30 SECONDS FOR iCUB TO LEARN.
iCUB: EXCELLENT. NOW I KNOW THE MUG.
SO I'VE TAUGHT iCUB
NOT JUST TO RECOGNIZE THE OBJECT, BUT TO
ASSOCIATE THE NAME WITH THE OBJECT.
NOW LET'S SEE IF WE CAN GET IT
TO DISTINGUISH ONE OBJECT, LIKE THE MUG,
FROM SOMETHING ELSE IN THE ENVIRONMENT.
WHAT IS CLOSE TO THE MUG?
iCUB: THE CLOSEST OBJECT IS THE SUNFLOWER.
SO THIS SHOWS YOU SOMETHING PRETTY EXTRAORDINARY:
YOU CAN TEACH iCUB A NEW OBJECT, AND
WITHIN SECONDS, IT HAS THE ABILITY TO GO INTO ITS MEMORY
AND COMPARE IT TO SOME OTHER OBJECT
THAT IT'S LEARNED IN THE PAST.
AND THIS IS REALLY CRUCIAL FOR ROBOTS.
IF THEY'RE GOING TO FUNCTION IN A HUMAN ENVIRONMENT--
THEY'RE GOING TO BE IN YOUR APARTMENT, TAKING THINGS OUT
OF THE REFRIGERATOR-- THEY NEED TO BE ABLE
TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ONE OBJECT AND ANOTHER,
VERY MUCH THE WAY HUMANS DO IT,
AND THIS IS THE BEGINNING OF THAT PROCESS.
MEIGS: SO THE KEY THING ABOUT THE iCUB IS THAT IT LEARNS.
WE DON'T THINK WE CAN PROGRAM ALL THE FEATURES
AND FUNCTIONALITIES AND INTELLIGENCE THAT WE NEED
FOR AN AUTONOMOUS ROBOT, SO THE BEST WAY IS
ACTUALLY TO GO THROUGH LEARNING, SO HAVE
THE ROBOT COLLECT ENOUGH DATA, LIKE VISION,
LIKE TOUCH, LIKE EXPERIENCE WITH MANIPULATING OBJECTS
AND LEARNING TO RECOGNIZE THEM AND MAKING A LOT
OF MISTAKES, AND EVENTUALLY LEARNING HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS.
IT'S A BIT LIKE A CHILD; YOU LEARN THROUGH PLAY.
THE IDEA WITH THE ROBOT WAS EXACTLY THE SAME.
MEIGS: THIS VERSION OF iCUB HAS AN IMPROVED VISION SYSTEM
THAT ALLOWS IT TO SENSE MOVEMENT AND, IN A SENSE, TO PAY ATTENTION TO THEM.
THAT MAY NOT BE THE PROPER SCIENTIFIC TERM, BUT THAT'S WHAT IT FEELS LIKE.
I'VE GOT THIS PADDLE, AND...
ONCE THE iCUB SEES THE IMAGE
THAT I'M MOVING IN FRONT OF IT,
HE'LL TRACK THE PADDLE...
AND FOLLOW IT WHEREVER I MOVE IT.
[PLAYING NOTES]
NARRATOR: iCUB'S LEARNING SYSTEM IS NOT SPECIFIC TO ANY ONE TASK.
THAT MEANS IT CAN LEARN MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF THINGS...
[PLAYS ONE NOTE]
SUCH AS PLAYING THE PIANO.
[PLAYS ONE NOTE]
AND ONCE ONE iCUB HAS LEARNED SOMETHING, LIKE TAI CHI,
THAT LEARNING CAN BE SHARED WITH ALL OTHER iCUBS.
IN THE FUTURE, EVEN A BRAND-NEW ROBOT WILL COME
WITH A VAST AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE PRE-INSTALLED.
THAT IS HOW ROBOTS WILL FINALLY BECOME COMMONPLACE.
I THINK ROBOTS ARE GOING TO BE ONE OF THOSE TECHNOLOGIES
THAT SEEMS TO BE COMING ONLINE KIND OF SLOWLY,
UNTIL ALL OF A SUDDEN, THEY'RE EVERYWHERE.
NARRATOR: SO WILL ROBOTS TAKE OVER THE WORLD?
MIGHT THEY, LIKE IN SO MANY MOVIES,
RISE UP AGAINST US?
NOT EVERYONE THINKS IT WILL HAPPEN.
BROOKS: BEFORE WE HAVE SUPER-INTELLIGENT ROBOTS,
WE WOULD HAVE QUITE INTELLIGENT ROBOTS,
AND BEFORE THAT, WE'D HAVE SOMEWHAT INTELLIGENT ROBOTS.
IF THOSE ROBOTS WERE GOING TO BE EVIL, WELL,
THOSE SOMEWHAT INTELLIGENT ROBOTS WOULD BE CERTAINLY
REALLY ANNOYING AND REALLY RUDE TO US,
SO THERE'D BE A LOT OF CO-EVOLUTION OF THINGS,
AND THAT GETS MISSED BY LOOKING AT HOLLYWOOD MOVIES
AND LEADS PEOPLE ASTRAY IN THINKING ABOUT THE FUTURE.
GEORGE: I'D LOVE TO SEE A ROBOT THAT COULD LOVE
IN THE WAY THAT I LOVE MY FAMILY.
I CAN DEFINITELY SEE A FUTURE WHERE ROBOTS
AND HUMANS ARE LIVING ALONGSIDE EACH OTHER, AND I THINK
THAT WILL MAKE A BETTER FUTURE FOR HUMANS AS WELL.
NARRATOR: WHATEVER THE FUTURE HOLDS, A NEW AGE IS UPON US,
THANKS TO ENGINEERS WORKING IN LABS WORLDWIDE,
BUILDING ON THE BREAKTHROUGHS MADE DOWN THROUGH THE DECADES
AND CENTURIES, ALL THE WAY BACK TO ANCIENT GREECE.
THAT'S BEAUTIFUL.
NARRATOR: HUMANITY MAY SOON HAVE
WHAT SO MANY HAVE ALWAYS WANTED--
A BREAKTHROUGH THAT IS THE ROBOT.
NARRATOR: NEXT TIME ON "BREAKTHROUGH,"
THE STORY OF A MACHINE
THAT TRULY CHANGED THE WORLD.
A TALE FULL OF EXTRAORDINARY ACCIDENTS
AND BIZARRE CONNECTIONS.
IT WOULD TAKE AN ALLIANCE
WITH A DANGEROUS PREDATOR,
DEVASTATING FLOODS,
EXPLODING CANNONS,
AND A TRIP TO THE SLAUGHTERHOUSE
TO GET THE ULTIMATE FREEDOM MACHINE--THE CAR.